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AUTHOR: 


KNAPP,  CHARLES 


TITLE: 


ROMAN  THEATER 


PLACE: 


[NEW  YORK] 


DA  TE : 


[1915?] 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 


Master  Negative  # 


Restrictions  o  \  Use: 


BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


BKS / P  ROD       Bqq  K  s  FUL /BIB  MY  CG92-B9789 

Fsecord     1     of    G    Record    added    today 


-I- 


:n:)-NyCG92  -B9787 
CC;;9668   BLTram 


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AD: 02- 11-92 
UD: 02- 11 -92 


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IMAGE  PLACEMENT:    I A  <^^^  IB 
DATE      FILMED: iL/Z^Tkl^ 

FILMED  BY:    RESEARCH  PUBLICATIONS,  INC  WOODBRIDGE.  CT 


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Association  for  Information  and  Image  Management 

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ART   AND   ARCHAEOLOGY 


VOLIME  I 


JAXTAliY  1915 


NUMBER  \ 


Design  of  I^-veil  based  on  Baltanl. 

FIG.  1.     HECONSTRUCTrOX  OF  THEATElt  OF  POMPEV   IX  R(JME. 


THE  ROMAX  THEATER 

CHARLKS  KXAPP 


TX  ANCIENT  Rome,  under  normal 
^  circumstances,  it  was  possible  to 
witness  plays  only  at  certain  periods  of 
the  year,  as  an  element  in  annually 
recurring  f(>stivals  of  the  peo])le.  These 
festivals,  known  as  ludi,  came  in  April, 
•^uly,  September,  and  Noveml^er.  There 
were,  however,  extraordinary  occasions 
<m  which  inlays  mijzht  be  seen.  These 
were  furnished  by  the  dedication  of  some 
splendid  building,  by  a  triumph  in  cele- 
hration  of  some  victory,  or,  mayhap,  l)y 
the  funeral  of  a  distinguished  citizen. 
For  each  set  of  ludi  a  certain  sum  of 
money    was    granted    from    the    public 


treasury;  the  remainder  of  the  expenses, 
invariably  large  and  ever  tc^nding  to  grow 
larger,  was  met  by  the  magistrate  in 
charge  of  the  ludi.  From  the  statement 
that  part  of  the  expenses  of  the  ludi  was 
met  from  the  state  treasury  it  might  be 
inferred  that  the  state  subsidized  the 
theater.  Such  an  inference  would,  how- 
ever, ])e  wide  of  the  mark,  since  for  cen- 
turies the  attitude  of  the  government 
toward  the  theater  was  an  attitude  of 
opposition.  To  orthodox  Roman  senti- 
ment the  witnessing  of  plays  long  seemed 
a  waste  of  time,  and  consequently  w^ell- 
nigh  immoral.     To  strike  the  truth,  then, 

137 


y 


y. 

r. 


y. 


y 


•■? 


.k 


s 


V 


ART  AND   ARCHAEOLOGY 


\()U\Ari:  I 


JAXCAin"    191.-) 


XUMBKR   t 


IVaigii  «.l    l.r\t.il  i.;iMM|  on    H:ilt;iri|. 

IK..  I.     RKCOXSTinCTrON  or   lllIiAriJi  ol-    I-oMI-KV   in   ijo.m 

TIIK  liOAIAX  T]11':ATI:K 

en aimj:s  k.\ ai'p 


jX    A\('II]N'r     Honu'.    under    normal 

circunistanccs,    it    Avns    ])()ssil)l('   to 

witness  plays  only  at   certain    periods  of 

^}|<'    year,    as    an    element     in    anmially 

'<'<''irrino-  festivals  of  the  pe()])Ie.     These 

'<'>tivals,  known  as  Itn/i,  came  in  A])ril. 

inly.  Septeml)(>r.  and  Xovemher.     There 

were,    however,    extraordinary    occasions 

'Ji    which    plays    mi<zht    l)e    s(>en.      11iese 

vere  furnished  hy  the  dedication  of  some 

^ilcndid  l)uildin«r,  hy  a  trium])h  in  cele- 

hratioii  of  some  victory,  or.  mayhaj).  Ia- 

'Ik'    funeral    of    a    distin<ruished    citizen. 

I'or   each    set    oi'   hidl   a    certain    sum    of 

nioiiey    was    «»ranted     from     the    i)ul)lic 


treasury:  the  remainder  of  the  ex])enses. 
invai'iahly  lar<>-e  and  ever  tendinjr  to  jiTow 
lar^-er.    was    met    hy    the    magistrate    in 
char<:e  of  Wwhull.       From  the  statement 
that  part  of  the  expenses  of  the ///r//  was 
met   from  the  state  treasury  it  mijiht  he 
inferred    that    the    state    subsidized    tlie 
theater.     Such  an  inference  would,  how- 
ever, he  wide  of  the  mark,  since  for  cen- 
turies   the    attitude    of    the    jiovernment 
toward    the    theater   was   an    attitu(h'   of 
4)p])ositi()n.      '1\)  oithodox    ]^)man   senti- 
ment th(^  witnessing:  of  plays  lon<i;  seemed 
a  waste  of  time,  and  conseciuently  well- 
m'<rh  immoral.     To  strike  the  truth,  then, 

1:^7 


138 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


in  this  connoction  we  must  say  that  the 
government  subsidized  the  ladi  and,  more 
or  less  against  its  will,  suffered  dramatic 
performances  to  be  given  at  the  ludi. 
This  attitude  of  the  government  may  be 
well  illustrated  by  the  recital  of  certain 
facts. 

According  to  Roman  tradition,  it  was 
194  B.  C.  before  any  space  was  set 
aside  at  theatrical  performances  for  tlu^ 


FIG.  2.     TiFE  TUEATKR  OF  MARCELLUS  IX  HOME. 

senators,  the  highest  i)art,  socially  and 
politically,  of  the  Roman  community.  In 
that  year  the  space  nearest  the  stage  was 
reserv(Hl  for  the  senators.  Since  no  men- 
tion of  seats  is  made  by  Livy,  our  author- 
ity here,  we  must  suppose  that  the  j^rivi- 
lege  under  discussion  was  merely  the  right 
to  stand  or  to  sit  on  the  ground  nearer  to 
the  stage  than  the  rest  of  the  spectators. 
Simj^le  as  this  innovation  was,  none  the 
less,  according  to  Livy,  praehuit  nonores. 


In  the  next  forty  years  attempts  were 
made  to  construct  a  permanent  stage  of 
stone,  but  they  were  as  often  frustrated 
by  the  censors.     Indeed,  as  late  as  151 
B.  C\,  the  senate,  on  motion  of  P.  Scii)io 
Xasica,    adopted    reactionary    measures 
and    ordained    that    henceforth    no    one 
should  wish  to  set  seats  for  si)ectators  or 
to  sit  doAvn  himself  at  a  theatrical  ])er- 
formance,  either  at  Rome  or  within  a  mile 
of  the  city  gates!     Not  till  oo  B.  C.  did 
Rome    possess    a    stone    theater.     Long 
before  this  there  had  been  stone  theaters 
in  i^rovincial  towns  of  Italy,  though  we 
ought  i^erhaps  to  admit  that  in  nearly  all 
cases,  if  not  in  all  cases,  these  toAvns  were 
(Jreek  rather  than  Roman  in  origin  and 
character.    The  theater  erected  in  55  B.  C. 
was  Iniilt  by  Pomi>ey,  then  at  the  height 
of  his  reputation  and  popularity  (fig.  1). 
A  curious  story,  given  l)y  one  pagan  and 
one  Christian  Roman  writer,  testifies  to 
the  strength  of   the   prejudice  against  a 
permanent    theater-structure.      Pom]x\v, 
say  Aulus  Gellius  and  Tertullian,  built  a 
temple  of  ^^(^nus  in  such  a  way  that  the 
rows  of  seats  of  the  tlu^ater  (the  (jradus) 
formed  the  only  way  of  ap.])roacli  to  the 
temj)le.     The  populace  was  invited  to  the 
dedication  not  of  a  theater  but  of  a  temple 
of  Venus,  to  which,  added  Pomixw  slyly, 
I  have  ai)i:)ended  seats  for  a  theater.     Of 
course,  since  the  seats  were  there,  fully 
constructed,  so  i)ractical  a  people  as  the 
Romans  did  not  allow  them  to  remain 
unused.     Forty-two   years  more   i)assed 
l)efore  Rome  possessed  a  second  theater  of 
stone.    Then,  in  13  B.  (\,  the  Theater  of 
Balbus  and  the  Theater  of  Alarcellus  (figs. 
2,  3)  Avere  dedicated.     No  other  perma- 
nent   theater-structure    was    erected    in 
Rome.      Frequently,  under   the   emi)ire, 
temporary     wooden      theater-structures 
seem   to  have   been  erected  for  special 
occasions. 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


139 


y 


Theatrical  performances  l)egan  early  in 
the  morning,  so  early,  in  fact,  that  some  of 
the  spectators  came  l)reakfastless  to  the 
play;  others  actually  sought  their  places 
during  the  niglit  before  the  i)erformance. 
Several  i)lays  were  given  in  succession. 
On  such  occasions  a  halt  was  made  at 
noontime  for  refreshments.  Refresh- 
ments were  su])])li(Hl  at  times  without 
charge,  as  in  tlie  am])hitheater  and  the 
circus,   l)y  the  editor,   the  magistrate  in 


One  preliminary  observation  must  be 
made.  It  is  not  possible  to  sj^eak  of  the 
Roman  theater  without  speaking  also  of 
the  Greek  theater.  The  Roman  theater- 
structure  was  the  Greek  theater-structure, 
modified;  Roman  ])lays,  at  least  those 
that  count  for  us,  the  C  omedi(\s  of  Plautus 
and  Ten^nce,!  were  all'laid  on  Greek  soil; 
the  costumes  worn  by  the  actors  were  in 
all  respects  Greek.  The  plays  of  Plautus 
and  Terence  were  adaptations  of  Greek 


FIG.  3.     RESTOR.VTIOX  OF  THEATER  OF  MARCELLUS  AXD  NEIGHBORIXG 

BUILDINGS   IX  ROME. 


'•harge  of  the  ludi  of  which  the  plays 
tormed  a  part.  In  imperial  times  plays 
>eem  to  have  been  given  occasionally,  as  a 
^ort  of  theatrical  coup,  at  night. 

Into  the  history  of  theater-structures 
among  the  Romans  it  is  not  possible  to  go 
in  this  article,  further  than  has  already 
been  done  in  the  foregoing  pages.  There 
is  space  only  to  deal  with  the  developed 
structure  of  the  latter  part  of  the  first 
century  B.  C.  and  later. 


plays.  In  a  word,  the  history  of  the 
Roman  theater  is  a  chapter  or  series  of 
chapters  in  the  later  history  of  the  Greek 
theater. 

With  only  a  few  exceptions  the  Greeks 
laid  their  theaters  against  a  hill-side, 
to  take  advantage  of  the  natural  slope 
of  the  ground.  FamiHar  examples  are 
the    Dionysiac    theater    at    Athens   (fig. 

^  No  tragedy  of  the  earlier  and  better  days  of 
the  Roman  drama  has  come  down  to  us  intact. 


13S 


ART  AND  AH('IIAK()L(X;Y 


in  this  coinicctioii  we  imi>t  say  that   the  In    the   next    forty  years  att('ini)ts  wore 

ji;<)\('i-nnicnt  subsidized  the ///'// aiiil,  moi'c  made  to  eonstniet  a  ])ennai)ent  staue  of 

or  less  airaiust   its  wilL  suffered  dramatic  stone,  hut  they  were  as  (»ften  frustrated 

performances    to    l)e    liiven    at    the    ludi.  hy   the  cei 

This  attitude  of  the  li'overnment  may  he  H.  ( '.,  tl 

well  iUusti'ated  h\'  the  recital  of  certain  X 


isor 


Indeed, 


a." 


lat 


e  as    1')! 


le  senate,  on  mot  ion  o 


f  r 


'CIplO 


fact: 


isiea.    ado], ted    reactionar^•    measu 


res 


:uid    oi-(laine(l    that     hencefortl 


1    no    one 


Acconhnii-  to    Roman  ti'adition.  it  was    should  wish  to  set  seats  f 


or  s))eetatois  or 


V.)\     P).    ('.    hefore    any    space    was    set     to   sit   down   hims(>jf  at   a  theatrical 
aside  at   theatrical  jxa-formances  foi-  the     formance.  eit  her  at  R 


ome  or  withm  a 


]iei-- 
mil(^ 

of  the  citv  ,oa.t(>s!  Not  till  .V)  \\.  ('.  did 
Rome  ])ossess  a  stone  theater.  Loni;- 
(.('tore  this  there  had  been  stone  theaters 
in  |:.ro\incial  towns  of  Italy,  thou.iih  we 
oa.iiht  perhaps  to  admit  that  in"nearl.\-  all 
cases,  if  not  iti  all  cases,  these  towns  were 


( 


ii-eciv  rather  than  Roman  m  oriiiin  and 
character.  The  t  heater  (M'ected  in  o.')  R.  (  \ 
wa.s  huilt  hy  R(.m],ey,  then  at  the  height 
of  his  reputation  and  i:o])ularity  (fiL'.  1). 
•ui-ious  stor>-,  «iiven  hy  one  ])a,uan  and 


A 


one  ('hristian  Roman  writer,  testifi<'>  to 
the  sti-enuth  of  the  p/rejud:ce  aizainst  a 
1  ermanent  theater-st  ructur(>.  Romp.ey, 
say  Aulus  (lellius  and  Tertullian.  huilt  a 
temi;le  of  Wnus  in  such  a  way  that  the 
rows  of  seats  of  the  theater  (the  (jnn/ns) 


h)i'med  the  only  way  of  ai)])roach  to  the 
temple.  The  p.ojailace  Avas  inA'ite<l  to  the 
licati(Ui  not  of  a  theater  hut  of  a  temple 
enus,  to  Avliich,  added  Rom])ey  sl\ly 


(  [(M 


FI< 


sen 


riii:  rni:  \  ri:i;  (»|-  m  \i:(i:i.ias  i\  ko.mk 


:itors,    the   hi,uhest     pai't,   sociallv    and     1^ 


of  \ 

1  have  ai)p,ended  seats  for  a  theater.  Of 
course,  since  the  seats  were  there,  fully 
constructed,  so  jiractical  a  ])e()])l('  as  tl 


le 


]^»olitically.  of  the  I^^man  connnunitw     I 


omans  did   not    allow   them   to   remain 


n     umiscd.      I-'ortv-t 


A\ 


that  year  the  s|)ace  nearest  the  staiic  was     hefore  Rome  j>ossessed 


reser\-e([  for  the  senators.     Sin 


o    years    more    passed 
a  second  theater  of 


tion  ol  s(»ats  is  made  hv  Livv,  our  auti 
itv  1 


(viiomen-    stone.     Then,  in   hS  P>.  ("..  the  Theater  of 


lor-     l');dhusand  the  Theat(>r  of  Marcellus  i  tios. 


ity  iiere.  we  nuist  sup,p,ose  that  the  ])rivi-    2,  :])  were   dedicated.      Xo  otl 
le.U'c  under  discussion  was  merely  the  ri«iht     nent     theater-struct 
to  stand  or  to  sit  on  the  uround  nearer  to     R( 


lei-  ])erma- 


tl 


ure    was    erected    in 
»me.      Freciuently.  tinder   the   em])ire, 


le  stao-e  than  the  rest  of  the  s])ectators.     temj)orary      wooden       theat 


1< 


'imple  as  tins  nmoAation  Avas,  none  the    s(>em    to   haA'c    1 


ess.  accor(hn,ii'   to  Li\-\',  /trnrhuif 


er-structtu'cs 
)een    er'ecteil    tor    s})ecial 


ni  mores,     occasion.- 


U 


1^ 


M 


W  . 


tl 

tl 


TIIK  ROAIAX  TIIKATKR 

riieatrical  p*erh)rinances  heiian  early  in         One  ])reli 


VM) 


])reiiminary  observation  must   I 


)e 


>1: 


Hwnornmir.soearly.m  tact,  that  some  of    made.      It  is  not  possibh^o  sp<>ak  of  the 

)man  theater  wit  hout  speakin«i-  also  of 


le  sjx'ctators  came  breakfastless  to  the     R 
>tl 


play:  others  actually  sou-ht    their  places     the  Creek  thc-iter.      Th(>  I 


•  hirinir  the  niuht  before  the  perh)n 


voman  theater- 


>e\"eral    p;lays   were   <ii\- 
<  >n   such   occasions  a    halt 


nance,     structure  was  the  ( Ireek  theater-struct 


noontime     lor     refreshments.       Refresh-    and  T 


ments   were   sujipJied    at    times   without     tl 


ure, 

lose 
or  us.  the  (  'oinediesof  Rlautus 
erence.'  were  all'laid  on  (  Ireek  soil; 


n   111   succession,    modified:    Roman    ])lays.  at    least    tl 
was  made  at     that  count  f 


'i^triic   as   in    the  amphitheater  and  tl 


le  costumes  worn  b\-  the  actor 


s  Were  m 


•  •ircu<.    bv   the  (<IHni\   the  iiiaiiistrat 


K'    all  resix'cts  (  d-eck.     Th(>  pJays  of  l>laut 


u- 


e   ill     and.   Tej'em 


'e  were  a< 


lapdat 


ions  ot  ( ,!•('< 


f  ( 


'k 


I  [( 


KKSTOKATIOX    OF   TllKATKK    (»r    MAK( -KLLlS   AX1>   XFK  ;iIHol{rX( 


liiiLDrxcs  IX  Ko.Mi; 


•har«i-e   of    the    liidl   of   which    the   ])Iays    ])lays.      I 
'•nned  a  ])art.      In  im])erial  times  ])lays    Roman  theat 
<'('ni  to  have  been  <riven  occasionall 
•'•ft  of  theatrical  coup,  at  ni^dit. 


n    a    word,    the    historv    of  tl 


er  IS  a  ( 


■hai)t 


pter  or  series  ( 


i(* 
)f 


y,  as  a    chapters  in  the  later  historv  of  the  (ireek 


theat 


er 


Into   the   histo 
*aion<r  the  Romans  it  is  not  ])ossil)le  to  <»,o    laid     their    theat 
h  this  articl(\  further  than  has  already    to  take  advantage  of    the  natural  sli 


ry  of  theater-structures         With  only  a  few  exce])tions  the  (Ireeb 

ers    a«iainst    a    hill-side 


xH'ii  done  in  the  fore^oin<;  pa<;-es.    There    of   tl 


)])e 


ic   ground.      I-'amiliar   examj)les   are 


IS 


sj)ace  only  to  deal  with  the  develojx'd    the    J)ionysiac    th(\ater    at     Atlnais    (fi 


()• 


^tructure  of   the   latter  ])art   of  ihv   first 
•<'nturv  M.  ('.  and  later. 


'  No  tra«i('<ly  of  t  lie  earlier  aiHllx'tter  (lays  of 
the  Hoiiiaii  (llama  has  coiuc  down   to  us  intact. 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


141 


'_1 


S\ 


-     s 


4),  the  theater  at  Ar^os,  and  tlie  beau- 
tiful theater  at   Epidaurus  ffig.  5).    At 
Rome    all    three    stone    theaters    stood 
on    the    ('anipus    Martins,    which    was 
perfectly  fiat;  hence  massive  and  costly 
substructures    of    concrete    faced    with 
stone    or    bricks   were  needed   to    carry 
the  tiers  of  seats.     A  portion  of  the  sul)- 
structures  of  the  theater  of  Marcellus  is 
still  visible.     A  series  of  twelve  arches,  in 
two  tiers,  may  be  seen,  the  lower  adorned 
with  engajred  columns  or  pilasters  of  the 
Tusco-Doric  order,  the  upj:)er  with  Ionic 
colunms;  above  is  the  modern  wall  (figs. 
2,  3).     The  effect  is  thus  similar  to  that 
of  the  exterior  of  the  Coliseum.     In  the 
Villa  of  Hadrian,  near  Tivoli,one  mavsee, 
stanchng  free  in  its  entire  compass,  the 
semicircular  structure  carrying  the  seats. 
A  feature  of  this  theater,  unique,  so  far  as 
I  know,  is  seen  in  the  three  j^assageways 
which,  at  i^oints  distant  from  the  front  of 
the  stage,  lead  from  the  open  space  be- 
hind  the  auditorium    beneath   the   tiers 
of  seats  to  the  interior  of  the  theater  (the 
orchestra). - 

It  was  noted  above  that  the  surviving 
portion  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus 
reminds  onc^  of  tlu^  Coliseum.  If  we  add 
that  the  orthodox  Roman  theater,  both 
within  and  without,  was  exactly  semicir- 
cular in  fonn,  we  shall  be  able  to  visualize, 
without  difficulty,  the  fully  developed 
Homan  theater  (cf.  fig.  1). 

Betwecni  the  Greek  theater-structure 
and  the  Roman  theater-structure  there 
were,  besides  the  points  of  contrast 
already  noted,   two  particularlv  charao- 


f  eristic  difilerences.  One  is  concerned  with 
the  orchestra,  its  shape  and  the  uses  to 
which   it   Avas   put,    the   other   with    the 

-Those  passages  resemble  the  pnnxioi  of 
the  Roman  theater,  described  below  (page  1  U) ; 
they  are  distinct  from  them,  liowever,  in  their 
distance  from  the  stage. 


relation  of  the  stage^  and  the  auditorium 
to  each  other. 

In    the    Greek    theater   the    orchestra 
(etymologically    the    Vlancing-place':  cf. 
opxeladaL,    'to    dance'),    the    place  where 
the   chorus   sang  and   danced   and   ])er- 
formed    its    evolutions,    was    of    i)rime 
importance  in  the  actual  presentation  of 
plays.     In  fact,  historically  the  orchestra 
preceded   the   ])lace   for   the   spectators. 
For  the  moment  we  may  smn  uj)  the 
history  of  the  Graeco-Roman  drama  as  a 
history  of  the  diminishing  importance  of 
the  chorus,  and  the  increasing  importance 
of  the  actors,  or,  to  put  the  same  facts  in 
another  way,  the  history  of  the  transfor- 
mation of  a  i:>erformance  consisting  wholly 
of  singing  and  dancing  into  a  performance 
largely  dramatic.     We  say  largely   dra- 
matic, not  wholly  dramatic,  because  pas- 
sages delivered    as   song,  with  elaborate 
musical    accom])animent,    and  })assages 
deliv(^red  in  recitative^  formed  always  a 
large  i^art  of  Greek  and   Roman  plays, 
both  tragic  and  comic,  so  that  ancient 
plays    resembled   an    oj)era   or   oj^eretta 
more   closely   than   they   did   the  some- 
thing we  call  a  j)lay.     Xow,  originally,  in 
the  Greek  theater  the  orchestra  was  an 
exact  circle.     Such  a  circular  orchestra, 
64  feet  in  diameter,  was  traced  })y  Dr. 
Dorpfeld  beneath  the  visible  remains  of 
the  Dionysiac  theater  at  Athens;  we  see 
oiK^  ])lainly  still   at   Epidaurus  (fig.   5). 
As  the  im])ortance  of  the  chorus  dimir.- 
ished,   the  ])lace  allotted  to   it   became 
smaller.     In  its  final  form,  however,  the 
orchestra  of  the  Greek  theater  always 
exceeded  a  semicircle;  this  is  the  case 
with  the  visible  orchestra  in  the  theater  of 
Dionysus  at  Athejis  (fig.  4).     In  Roman 
l)lays  the  chorus  was  a  rarity;  it  never  oc- 

M  use  the  tenn  "stage"  of  the  Greek 
theater,  here  and  elsewhere,  merely  for  con- 
venience. 


THK  noMAX  TiiKATEH 


141 


) 


■f. 


r. 


—  A 


i 


4),  the  theater  at   Ar^os.  and   the  heau- 
tiful   theater   at    I-lpidaiinis   (fio-.   5).     At 
Koine    all     three    stone    theaters    stood 
on     the    Campus    Martins,     which     was 
perfectly  tlat :   hence  massive  and   costly 
substructures     of     concrete     fac(>([    with 
stone    or    hricks    were   needed    to    carrv 
the  tiers  of  seats.     A  ])orti()n  of  the  sub- 
structures of  the  theater  of  Alarcellus  is 
still  visible.     A  series  of  twelve  arches,  in 
two  tiers,  may  be  seen,  the  lower  adorned 
with  en^aji-ed  columns  or  pilasters  of  the 
4^isc()-l)oric  order,  the  upper  with  Ionic 
eolunms:  above  is  the  modern  wall  (fi<»s. 
2,  3).     The  effect  is  thus  similar  to  that 
of  the  ext(M-ior  of  the  Coliseum.      In  the 
\  ilia  of  Hadrian,  near  Tivoli.cme  may  see. 
standino-  fi-(>(>  jn   its  entire  com])ass,   the 
semicircular  structure  carryin<»-  th(^  seats. 
A  feature  of  this  th(>ater,  uni(iue,  so  far  as 
I  know,  is  seen  in  the  three  passa<>-eways 
which,  at  points  distant  from  the  front  of 
the  sta<>-e,   lead  from   the  open  space  be- 
liind    the   auditorium    beneath    thc^    tiers 
of  seats  to  the  interior  of  the  theater  fthe 
oi-chestra).- 

rt  was  noted  above  that  the  surAivin<' 
portion  of  the  Hieater  of  Alarcellus 
reminds  one  of  the  (  'oliseum.  If  we  add 
that  the  orthodox  Roman  theater,  both 
within  and  without,  was  exactly  semicir- 
f'ular  in  fo.-m.  we  shall  be  able  to  visualize, 
without  difficulty,  the  fully  develo])ed 
i^)man  theater  (cf.  fi"-.  1  ). 

Between  the  (Ireek  theater-structure 
>nid  the  Roman  theater-structure  there 
were,  besides  the  points  of  contrast 
■'Iready  noted,  two  particularly  charao 
'''Hstic  differences.  ( )nc  is  concerned  with 
Hie  orchestra,  its  shaj)e  and  the  uses  to 
\vhich    it    was   put.    the   other   with    tlu^ 


-'  I  licso  passaj^os  ivsciuhic  llic  i„n\»l<n  of 
die  Horiiaii  tlicatcr,  (Icscrihcdlx'low  (pa-ic  \\\)\ 
'tiey  arc  distinct  from  tliciii.  liowcvcc,  in  tlidf 
"tistanco  from  the  stajic 


relation  of  the  sta^re'^  and  the  auditorium 
to  each  other. 

h\    the    (u-eek    theater    the    orchestra 
(etymoloo-ically    the    '(lanchi<i-place':  cf. 
opxeladaL,    'to    dance'j,    the    ])lace  wlu^re 
the    chorus   san*-'   and    <la]ic(Ml    and    ])er- 
lormecl     its    evolutions,    was    of    ])rime 
importance  in  the  actual  i)resentation  of 
plays.      lu  fact,  historically  th(^  orchestra 
preceded    the    place    for    the    sp(M'tators. 
For   the   moment   we   may   sum   uj)   the 
history  of  the  (Iraeeo-Ronian  drama  as  a 
history  of  the  diminishing;  importanec*  of 
the  chorus,  and  th(>  incr(»asin<!:  importance 
of  the  actors,  or,  to  put  the  same  faets  in 
another  way,  the  history  of  the  transfor- 
mation of  a  performance  consisting-  wholU' 
of  sincrin<i  and  dancin*!;  into  a  performance 
lar<zely  dramatic.      We   say   lar<>;e]y   dra- 
matic, not   wholly  dramatic,  because  pas- 
sa^zes  delivered    as    sonji,  with  elaborate 
nnisical     acconi])animent,     and  passa«i;es 
delivered  in   recitative  forme(l  always  a. 
lar«i-e   part    of  Creek   and    Roman  j)lays, 
both   tra«»ic  and  comic,  so  that  ancient 
])lays    resembled    an    o])era    or   o])eretta 
more   closely   than    they    did    the   some- 
thino-  we  call  a  i)lay.     \ow,  originally,  in 
the  (Jreek  theater  the  orchestra  was  an 
exact  circle.     Such  a  circular  orchestra, 
t)4  feet  in   diameter,   was  traced   j>y   Dr. 
Dorpfeld  beneath   the  visible  ren)ains  of 
the  Dionysiac  theater  at  Athens;  we  see 
one   ])lainly    still    at    l.pidaurus   (fi^-.    .5j. 
As   tlu'  importance  of  the  chorus  d'mii:- 
ished,    the    place    allotted    to    it    became 
smaller.     In  its  final  form.  howevcM',  the 
orchestra    of    the    (Ireek    theater   always 
exceeded    a    semicircle:    this    is    the    case 
with  the  visible  orchestra  in  the  theater  of 
Dionysus  at   Athens  (fi»-.  4).     In  Roman 
plays  the  chorus  was  a  rarit^•:  it  never  oc- 


•M  iKc  llic  term  "staKc"  of  fh..  Ciock 
llicatcr.  here  and  cIscwIkmv,  merely  for  con- 
venience. 


#A 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


143 


*¥ 


1— t 

H 


H 

o 


•d 


V,r- 


,> 


(•ii])i(Ml  the  orcliostra.  Hence  the  orchestra 
of  the  Roman  theater  was  smaller  even 
than  that  of  the  Greek  theater;  it  was  an 
exact  semicircle.  (See  also  helow,  ])aj!;e 
144).  Such  a  semicircular  orchestra  we 
see  in  the  Odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus  at 
Athens  (a  structure  ])artly  Greek,  how- 
ever), in  the  beautiful  Roman  theater  at 
Timgad,  in  Africa, — the  Pom]:;eii,  as  it  has 
heen  called,  of  the  Sahara, — and  in  the  in- 
teresting theaters  at  Fiesole  (the  ancient 
Faesulae),  three  miles  northeast  of  Flor- 
ence, and  at  Tusculum  (fig.  10). 

Let  us  consider  now^  the  other  s}:)ecial 
point  of  difference  between  the  Greek  and 
the    Roman    theater-structure.     In    the 
(J reek  theater,  stage  and  auditorium  were 
sej^arated  from   each  other  l)y  an  open 
space,  ten  feet  or  more  in  width,  which 
could  be  closed  at  the  outer  en(ll)y  gates 
(fig.  5) .     There  was  thus,  at  either  side,  an 
uncovered  passageway  from  the  outside 
world  into  the  theater   (the  orchestra), 
bounded  on  the  one  side  by  the  front  of 
the  stage,  on  the  other  by  the  end  of  the 
nuditorium.     Viewed    either    from     the 
stage  or  from  the  auditorium,  these  pas- 
sageways were   side-ways,    and   so  were 
called  by  the  Greeks  parodoi,  'side-roads', 
'hv-roads.'     Through    the    parodoi    the 
chorus    entered    the    orchestra    near  the 
h' ginning  of  the  play;  through  them  the 
chorus  withdrew  from  the  orchestra  when 
th"  play  was  done.     If  there  was  no  stage 
in  the  Greek  theater,  and  if  all  the  per- 
foiniers,  actors  and  chorus  both,  played 
th«  ir  roles   only   in    the    orchestra,    as 
ni'iiiy  scholars,  following  Dr.  Dorpfeld, 
'>f'iieve,  then  actors  too  entered  and  with- 
al' w  by    the   parodoi.     Spectators   also 
f'ould  enter  (or  leave)  the  orchestra  b}-  the 
]p(i'odoi;  from  the  orchestra  thev  could 
f'liiab  upward,  if  need  be,  to  the  higher 
l^^'ats.     Indeed,  some  Greek  theaters  lie  in 
^'ich  fashion  against  the  supporting  hill- 


side that  the  paror/o/ form  the  only  means 
of  ingress  and  egress  for  the  sj^ectators. 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  ends  of  the  audi- 
torium, right  and  left,  did  not  lie  in 
a  straight  line,  i)arallel  to  the  stage,  but 
were  so  l)uilt  that,  if  i)rolonged,  they 
would  intersect  within  the  orchestra. 

In  turning  to   consider  in   detail   the 
form  of  the  Roman  theater-structure,  we 
have  occasion  to  mention,   for  the  first 
time,  Mtruvius,  the  Roman  engineer  and 
architect  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  who, 
in  his  work   On  Architecture,^  Book   Y, 
gives  us  important  information  concern- 
ing the  (Jreek  and  the  Roman  theater, 
especially  the  latter.     Mtruvius  believed 
that  in  the  Greek  theater  there  was  a 
stage,  narrow  and  shallow  (10  to  12  feet 
high,  8  feet  deep),  on  which  the  actors 
played  their  parts;  below  them,   in  the 
orchestra,  was  the  chorus.     In  the  Roman 
theater,  said  Vitruvius,  the  stage  must  l)e 
deeper  than  the  stage  of  the  Greek  the- 
ater, })ecause  in  the  Roman  theater  all  the 
l^erformers— actors,    chorus    when   there 
was  one,  and  supernumeraries  (the  Ro- 
mans were  fond  of  elal)orate  stage-specta- 
cles: see  the  quotation  from  Horace,  below, 
page  145) — played  their  parts.    Further, 
says  Vitruvius,  the  stage  of  the  Roman 
theater  must  be  lower  than  that  of  the 
Greek  theater,  for  the  following  reason. 
As  already  made  ):)lain,  the  orchestra  in 
the  Roman  theater  was  not  used  for  the 
chorus.     There  seldom  was  a  chorus  in  a 
Roman  play;  when  there  was  one,   its 
members  took  places  on  the  stage.     The 
orchestra  was  set  apart  for  the  seats  of  the 
senators.     ''Therefore,"   says   Vitruvius, 
"the  stage  must  not  exceed  five  feet  in 

♦This  work  may  now  bo  convcnifntiy  con- 
sulted in  the  admirable  translation  by  the  late 
Prof.  Morris  Hickcy  Morgan,  published  this 
year  by  the  Harvard  University  Press.  Cf. 
Art  and  Archaeology,  I,  p.  87. 


I  I 


THK  ROMAN  THlvVTKH 


14:] 


J 


I-. 


Y. 


..J 


ipicd  tli(M)rcli('stni.   irciicc  t lie  orchestra  side  tliat  the />^//''k/o/ form  the  only  means 

the  Roman  theater  was  smallei"  ev(Mi  ot"  in<;ress  and  egress  tor  the  spectators, 

iiian  that  of  the  (Ireek  theater:  it  was  an  It  may  l)e  noted  that  the  ends  of  the  au(h- 

(•\act  semicircle.      (See  also   helow,  ])a^-e  torinm.    ri«'ht    and    left,    did    not    lie    in 

!  14).     Snch  a   semicircnlar  orchestra  we  a  strai<rht  line.  ],arallel  to  the  stai»-e,  hut 

-c  in  the  Odeum  of  Iferodes  At  t  icus  at  were   so    huilt    that,    if   ])rolon,ii('d.    they 

Athens    (a   structure   ];artly   (ireek,  how-  would  intersect  within  the  orchestra. 

.  ver).  in  the  beautiful   I^oman  theater  at  In    turning-   to   consider   in    detail    the 

Tini<i;ad,  in  Africa,     the  Ponij-eii,  as  it  has  form  of  the  Roman  theater-structure,  we 

l.cen  ealled,  of  th(>  Sahara, — and  in  the  in-  have   occasion    to   mention,    foi-   the  first 

i(restin<i  theaters  at  Fiesoie  (the  ancient  time,  \'itruvius,  the  Roman  engineer  and 

I'aesulae),  three  miles  northeast  of  Flor-  architect  of  the  time  of  Auuust ns.  who, 

.lice,  and  ai   4^isculum  (fi,i>-.   10).  in    his   work    On    Architvclnn,^    Ho(»k    \\ 

Let  us  consider  now  the  other  s])(>cial  j^ives  us  im])ortant  information  concern- 
point  of  difference  hetween  the  ( Ireek  and  in^-  the  (Ireek  and  the  Roman  theater. 
the  Roman  t lu^atcM'-structure.  In  the  especially  the  latter.  \'itruvius  l.eli(>ve(l 
<  iivek  theater,  sta<i-e  and  auditoi-ium  were  that  in  the  (Ireek  theatei*  there  was  a 
xparatcMl  from  each  othcM-  hy  an  open  sta,u-e,  narrow  and  shallow  (10  to  12  feet 
<pace,  ten  feet  or  more  in  width,  which  hi<»h,  S  feet  deep),  on  which  the  actors 
•  oiild  !)(>  closed  at  the  outer  end  by  ^iates  i)layed  their  ])arts:  helow  them,  in  th(» 
fii:..")).  There  was  thus,  at  either  side,  an  orchestra,  was  the  chorus.  In  the  Roman 
uncovered  ])assa«£eway  from  the  outside  theater,  said  Mtruvius,  the  sta,LM' must  he 
world  into  the  th(\'iter  (the  orchestra).  dee])er  than  the  sta^v  of  the  (Ireek  the- 
I'oiuKh'd  on  the  on(>  side  hy  the  front  of  ater,  because  in  the  Roman  tln^aterall  the 
tlie  sta<;-e,  on  the  otluM*  by  the  end  of  the  performers — actors,    chorus     when    there 


;'uditorium.  A'iewed  either  from  the 
>'i^'e  or  from  the  auditorium,  these  y,[\<- 
>.i.ii<'ways  were  sidc-tnn/s,  and  so  were 
•"tlle(l  by  the  ( Ireeks />r/re(^/o/,  'si<le-roads', 
'hy-roads.'  44n'ou<>.h  the  /xtnx/oi  the 
'•liorus  entered  the  orchestra  near  the 
'••  ^■iimin<!;  of  the  ])Iay:  t}u-ou.<>:h  them  the 


was  one,  and  su])ermnneraries  (the  Ro- 
mans were  fond  of  elaborate  sta<!;e-s])ecta- 
cles:  s(H'  the(juotation  from  Horace,  below, 
])a<>;e  llo)  ])layed  their  ])arts.  Further, 
says  Mtruvius,  the  sta<i(>  of  the  Roman 
thc^ater  nnist  be  lower  than  that  of  tlie 
rireek  theater,   for  the  following  reason. 


<'   'rus  withdrew  from  the  orchestra  when  As  already  made  ])lain,  the  orchestra  in 

t'     play  was  done.      If  there  was  no  sta<»;e  the  Roman  theater  was  not   used  for  the 

i"  'he  (InH'k  theater,  and  if  all  the  ])er-  chorus.     41iere  seldom  was  a  chorus  in  a 

J'    :ners,  actors  and  chorus  both.  ])layed  Roman    ])lay:    when    there   was    one,    its 

ll    ir    roles    onl\'    in     tlu^    orchestra,     as  members  took  ])laces  on  the  stajic      44ie 

Hi   uy  scholars,   followin.u'    Dr.    Dcirjjfeld,  orchestra  was  set  apart  for  the  seats  of  the 

•''    "ve,  then  aetors  too  (Altered  and  with-  senators.     ''Therefore,"    says    \'itruvius, 

'I'   u-   by    the    />r//7>r/o/.      S])ectators    also  ''the  staji'e  must  not  exceed  five  feet   in 
'■•'id  enter  (or  leave)  the  orchestra  by  the 

/"     "lot;    from    th(^    orchestra    thev    could  *44iis  work  may  now  ]y.>  ronvciiicTitly   con- 
Hi  ab   u])ward,    ifm^edbe.  to  the   higher  ^yl^-l  •;' »»^^' ^»;['7-^''>!^  tnn.sh.tinn  hv  the  lato 
o.   ,  .       Til               /I        1    ^i       ^        1-     •  '  '■**'^-   ■^'••'■'■'^    Ilickcy   Mor^r.an,   puhlishcd   this 
<M>.      Ind(..I,  some  Creek  theaters  hem  ,,...,,  ,,,.   ,,^,.    Unrvanl   Tnivcrsitv   Pro^s.     Cf. 

"'1'  ii  fasliion  ajiainst   the  su])i)()rtin^-  hill-  Arl  <in<1  An J>a,<,hHj!/,  I.  j).  S7. 


144 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  RO:\IAN  THEATER 


145 


height,  that  those  who  sit  in  the  orchestra 
[the  highest  class,  socially  and  i)oliti- 
callv,  be  it  remem])ered,  of  the  Roman 
people]  may  be  al)le  to  see  the  perform- 
ances of  all  those  who  participate  in  the 

play.'' 

The  stage  of  the  larger  theater  at  Pom- 
peii is  about  tliree  feet  high  (fig.  6).     The 
height  of  the  stage  in  other  Roman  the- 
aters varies  between  three  feet  and  five. 
To  gain  the  greater  depth  of  stage  neces- 
sary in  the  Roman  theater,  the  fnmt  of  the 
CI  reek  stage  (so  Mtruvius  se(^ms  to  imply) 
was  brought  forward  till  it  met  the  ends 
of   the   auditorium,    which   in    this   case 
ran  straight,  and  so  formed  parts  of  one 
straight  line.     As  a  result,  in  the  Roman 
theater  stage  and   auihtorium    are    tied 
together  in  a  s"ngle  organic  whole.     The 
open  parodoi,  so  conspicuous  a  feature  of 
the  Greek  theater,  have  disappeared.    In 
their    place    the     Romans    constructed 
vaulted  passages  running  from  points  be- 
yond the  backof  the  auditorium,  under  the 
tiers  of  seats,  along  the  front  of  the  stage, 
into   the  orchestra  (fig.  6).     These  pas- 
sages, though  so  different  from  the  pa  rod  m 
of  the  Greek  theat(^r,  were  still  known  as 
parodoi  or  parodi.     This  innovation  in  the 
Roman  theater  1(mI  to  another.     At  the 
inner  end  of  the  auditorium,  at  each  side, 
at  the  point  where  the  seats  reached  the 
front  line  of  the  stage,  the  Romans  laid 
level  platforms,  of  some  size,  accessible 
only  by  special  staircases  lying  along  the 
front  of  the  stage.     These  ]:>latforms  were 
called  tribunalia,  and  may  be  descril)ed 
as    the    private    boxes    of     the     Roman 
theater.     Here,  on     si)ecial     seats,     the 
edi  or,  or  magistrate  super'ntending  the 
ludi  at  which  the  theatrical  ])erformance 
was  being  given,  and  such  guests  as  con- 
vention or  his  own  desires  required  him  to 
honor,  had   private   places,    reached,    as 
hinted  above,  by  staircases  quite  distinct 


from  those  used  by  the  thousands  in  th-- 
ordinary  gradus  of  the  auditorium.  In  tlic 
smaller  theater  at  Pom]K'ii  (fig.  7)  thciv 
are  several  additional  long  seats,  in  tiers, 
above  the  tribunal  on  each  side;  these  can 
be  reached  only  from  the  tribiinalia  and 
so  were  manifestly  reserved  places. 

We  may  now  examine  in  detail  some 
existing  Roman  theaters,  beginning  with 
those  at  Pompeii.  Ponii)eii,  though  ;i 
provincial  town  of  no  great  size,  possessed 
two  theaters,  which  are  commonly  called 
the  Large  Theater  and  the  Small  Tlu^ater 
or  Odeum. 

The  Large  Theater  (fig.  6)  was  built 
originally   in   the   Oscan   or   i)re-Roman 
period  of  the  city,  at  a  time,  however, 
when  the  influence  of  Greek  culture^  had 
made    itself    felt.     Shortly    before    the 
Christian    era    the    theater    was  relmilt: 
the  new  parts  corresi)onded  to  Roman 
methods  of  theater-building.     The  Greek- 
character  of  this  theater  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  the  orchestra  embraces  much  more 
than    a   semicirchs    in    the   further   fact 
that  the  walls  of  the  parodoi,  if  prolonged, 
would  intersect  (the  convergence  is,  how- 
ever, slight),  and,  finally,  in  the  far  more 
significant  fact  that  nuicli  of  the  carea,  or 
auditorium,  lies  against  a  hillside.     This 
theater  is  close  to  the  southern  limits  of 
Pompcni,  at  a  point  where  the  ground  fall> 
away  so  abrui:)tly  that,  although  elsewhere 
the  Pomi)eians  defended  their  city  with 
heavv  walls,  they  saw  no  need  of  su<'li 
defences  here.     Counting  from  the  orch(  s- 
tra  u])ward,  we  have  twenty-four  rows  <^t 
seats  ((p-adus)  in  this  theater  lying  against 
the  hill-side.     The  Roman  character   of 
the  theater  is  seen  with   equal  distinct- 
ness in    the    tribunalm ,   over  the    inn^r 
ends  of  the  vaulted  parodoi,  in  the  lo^v. 
dee]:)  stage,  in  the  crijpta,  or  covered  pas- 
sageway  running  all   round   the  theater 
beneath   the   uppermost    block  of  seat^. 


ihose  of  the  gallery  (for  the  use  of  the 
crypta  see  below),  and,  lastly,  in  the  elab- 
orate arched  construction,  in  two  tiers 
of  arches,  built,  at  the  time  of  the  Roman 
i-econstruction,  to  carry  the  four  rows  of 
seats  in  the  gallery. 

We  are  ready  now  for  further  details. 
The  stage,  as  already  noted,  is  about  three 
feet  in  height.     At  the  auditorium  end 


this  there  are  to  be  plays.  What  joy  it 
will  l)e,  he  cries,  to  mark  how  the  embroid- 
ered Britons  lift  that  grand  crimson  cur- 
tain from  the  ground!  In  Epistle.'^  2,1, 
189  fi'.,  Horace,  writing  disgustedly  of  the 
perverted  taste  of  contemporary  Roman 
audiences,  says :'' 

For  four  hours  or  more  the  curtain  is 
kept  down  while  squadrons  of  horse  and 


FIG.  6.    THE  LARGE  THEATER  AT  POMPEII. 


we  see  two  walls,  three  feet  or  more  apart. 
^Vithin  this  space,  no  doubt  covered  in 
ncient  times,  worked  once  the  roller 
■ith  the  aid  of  which  the  curtain  was 
'irawn  down  at  the  beginning  of  the  play, 
:  m\  uj)  at  its  close.  The  curtain  was 
<  laborately  embroidered.  These  points 
iM-e  compactly  put  for  us  by  Wrgil,  Geor- 
gics  3,25.  \>rgil  will  hold,  he  declares,  a 
great  festival  in  honor  of  Augustus;  at 


bodies  of  foot  are  seen  flying:  presently 
there  passes  the  spectacle  of  unfortunate 
kings  dragged  with  hands  behind  their 
backs:  chariots  of  every  kind  and  sha])e 
huriy  along,  and  ships;  spoil  of  ivory  is 
borne  by,  spoil  of  Corinthian  brass.  If 
he  were  on  earth,  Democritus  would 
lajAgh  at  the  sight,  whether  it  be  a  half- 
panther-half-camel,  or  a  white  elephant, 
that  made  all  faces  tuni  one  way.     He 

*  I  use  Wiekham's  translation. 


144 


AHT  AXI)  AIU  HAKOLOC.V 


liei^iit,  that  those  who  sit  in  the  orchestra     from  tliose  used  hy  the  thousands  in  th 
Ithc    highest    cl-iss.    soc'aily    and    ])oliti-    ()nhnar\' f//v/^///xof  the  auditorium.     Inil 
(•ally,   he   it    rememhered.  of   the    Roman     small(M'  theater  at   Ponijieii  i  fe.  7 )    thei 
])eo])le]  may   he  ahle  to  see  the  ])erh)rm-    are  several  additional  lonji'  seats,  in  ti.  r^ 
anees  of  all  those  who  i)articii)ate  in   the     ahove  the  (rihiUHil  on  each  side:  these  rim 
p\ix\\"  !)('  reached  only  from  the  In'hnnnlin  aiii 

The  sta<i-e  of  the  laro-er  theater  at  Pom-  so  were  manifestly  reserved  ])laces. 
jH'ii  is  about  three  feet  hi^h  (fi^.  ()).  44ie  WV  may  now  examine  in  detail  som- 
height  of  the  sta*-!'  in  other  Roman  the-  existin,u-  Roman  theaters.  l)e«i:iimin«i'  with 
aters  varies  between  three  feet  and  five,  those  at  Pompeii.  Pom])eii,  thoULrli 
To  gain  the  <!;reater  depth,  of  sta<;(>  neces-  ])rovincial  town  of  no  •ireat  size,  ])osse»(  <1 
saryinthe  I^oman  theater,  the  front  of  the  two  theaters,  which  are  commonly  calle.l 
(;reeksta<!;e  (so  X'itruvius  seems  to  ini])ly)  the  Lar<!e  41ieater  and  the  Small  Theatci 
was  brought  forward  till   it  met  the  ends    or  ( )d(Mnn. 

of    the    auditorium,    which    in    this    case         The    Lar^c   Theater   ( H«'-.  (i)   was   built 
ran  straijilit.  and  so  h)rmed  ])arts  of  one    ori.uinally    in    the    Oscan    or    i)re-Romaii 
straight  line.     Asa  result,  in  the  Roman     ])eri()d  of  the  city,   at  a   time.   howev<T. 
theater   stage   and    auchtorium    are    tied    when  the  influence  of  ( Jreek  culture  had 
together  in  a  sngle  organic  whole.      The     nuuW     itself     f(4t.      Shortly     before     the 
open  /)(fn>(hn\  so  conspi(aious  a  featiu-e  of    Christian    era    the    theater    was  rebuilt: 
the  (d-eek  theater,  have  disa])])eared.    In     the    new    parts   corres])onded   to    Roman 
their     i)lace     the     Romans     constructed     methods  of  theater-building.     Tiie  (  livek 
vaulted  passag(>s  rinnhng  from  points  be-    character  of  this  theater  is  seen  in  the  ta(  t 
yondthebackof  theaudit()rium,imd(M-the     that   the  orchestra  (Unbraces  much  moiv 
tiers  of  seats,  along  the  front  of  the  stage,     than    a    s(>niicircle,    in    the    further    la.t 
into    the   orchestra   (tig.  (i).     41iese  ])as-    that  the  walls  of  the />^//vk//^/.  if  ])rolonge<l. 
sages,  though  so  different  from  the  pdrotUri    would  intersect  (the  convergence  is,  how- 
of  the  (d-eek  theater,  were  still  known  as    ever,  slight),  and,  hnally.  in  the  far  mciv 
pdnxloiov  /Hirndi.     This  innovation  in  the    significant  fact  that  nnich  of  the  az/vr/.  -r 
Roman  theater  led  to  another.     At   the    auditoritun,  lies  against  a  hillside.     Tlii^ 
inner  end  of  the  auditorium,  at  eacli  side,     theater  is  close  to  the  southern  limits  ..i    ^ 
at  the  ])()int  where  the  seats  reached  the     Pompeii,  at  a  |)oint  where  the  ground  fa!h  ij 
front   line  of  the  stage,  the   Romans  laid    away  so  abi  ui)tly  that,  although  elsewhnv  , 
level   ])latforms,   of  some  size,   accessible     the    I'ompeians  defended   their  city  wi  h 
(mly  bv  special  staircases  lying  along  the    heavy   Avails,  they   saw   no   need   of  su  i 
fnmt  of  the  stage.     These  i)lath)rnis  were    defenc(>s  here.     ( 'otmting  from  the  orch'  - 
called   (n'huNdlid.  and  may   be  described     tra  upward,  we  have  twenty-four  row<   •: 
as    the     i)r;vate     boxes    of     the     Roman    seats  (f/rm/z/.v)  in  this  theater  lying  agaii>T 
theater.      Here,   ou     sjvecial     seats,     the    the   hill-side.     41i(»   Roman   character    •! 
('<h'  o,\   or  magistrate  super'ntending  the    the  theater  is  seen   with    ('(jual   (li>tin<r. 
///^//  at  which  the  theatrical  performance    ness    in     the    (ril)ini(ilia.    over    the    inn -r 
was  being  given,  and  such  guests  as  con-    ends  of  the  vaulted  /Hirodm.  in  the  lo'  •. 
vention  or  his  own  desires  reciuired  him  to    (h>ep  stage,  in  the  crii/ffd,  or  covered  pa- 
honor,  had    ])rivate    j)laces.    reached,    as    sageway    rumiing   all    round    the  theat'  r 
hinted  above,  by  staircases  (luite  distinct     beneath    the    U])])ermost    block    of   seat-. 


THK  ROMAN  TllKAldlR 


145 


:i(>so  of  the  gallery   (for  the  us(»  of  the  this  there  are  to  be  i)lays.      What  joy  it 

lipid  see  below),  and,  lastly,  in  the  elab-  will  be,  he  cries,  to  mark  how  theembroid- 

■  rate    arched    construction,  in  two  tiers  ered  P>riton<  lift  that  grand  crim-on  cur- 

,.f  arches,  built,  at  the  time  of  tlie  Roman  tain   from   the  groimd!     In   A>/>7/(.<  2,1, 

reconstruction,  to  carry  the  fotn-  i-ows  of  189  tf..  Horace,  writing  (hsgustedly  of  the 

-cats   in    the   gallery.  ])(M'verte(l  taste  of  c()ntem])orai-y  Roman 

We  are  ready  now  h)r  fiulher  details,  audiences,  says:' 

The  stage,  as  already  noted,  is  about  three  ].\„.  j[^^y^y  hours  oi-  more  the  curtain  is 

leet   in   height.      At    the   auditorium    end  kept  down   while  scpiadrons  of  lioi'<e  and 


ric.  ti.   TUi:  i.Ai{(;i:  iiii: ati:i{  at  pompkii. 

/e  see  two  walls,  three  feet  or  more  ai)art.  l>odies  of  foot  are  seen   flying:  proently 

.-.  ,  ...                           114^                 1   ;..  thei-e  ])asses  the  spectacle  oi  unfortunate 

\  It  nn   t  us  s])ace.   no  doubt   covered  m  ,.         ',             ,        \i     x        i     i    i  •     i    ♦!    : 

'  kmgs  dragged   with    hands   behmd   their 

i.cient     times,    worked    once    the    roller  i,.^^.)-^.  ,.|,.,,i(,ts  of  every  kind  and  shape 

ith    the   aid   of  A\hich    the   curtain   was  |mi-iy  -ilong.  and  ships:  spoil  of  ivory   is 

rawn  down  at  the  beginning  of  the  ])lay,  borne  by.  spoil  of  Corinthian   brass.      If 

44ie   curtain    was  he    were    on    earth.     nem()critu>    would 


•  id   Uj)   at    its   close. 
'  aborately    embroidered.      These    points 

•  "e  compact  1>'  ])Ut  h)r  us  by  X'ergil.  Gcor- 
:  rs  3,2').  \'ergil  will  hold,  he  declares,  a 
u'eat  festival   in   honor  of  Augustus;  at 


laugh  at  the  sight,  whether  it  be  a  half- 
panther-half-camel,  or  a  white  elephant, 
that    made  all    faces  turn   one   wa\-.      He 

•"•  I    use  A\'i(kli;iiii's  t  i':nis!:it  ion. 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


147 


would  think  the  people  a  show  to  be  stud- 
i(*d  more  carefully  even  than  the  games, 
:is  giving  him  very  much  the  more  to 
look  at.  But  for  the  poets — he  would 
think  them  to  he  telling  their  tales  to  a 
(leaf  ass.  P'or  what  voices  have  been  of 
force  enough  to  overcome  the  din  with 
which  our  theatres  ring?  You  would 
suppose  it  was  the  Garganian  forest 
roaring  or  the  Tuscan  sea :  such  the  shouts 
with  which  the  games  are  viewed,  and  the 
works  of  art  and  knick-knacks  of  foreign 
wealth  with  which  the  actor  })edizens 
himself.  As  soon  as  he  steps  on  the 
stage  right  hands  clash  with  left.  '^Has 
he  said  anything?"  Xot  one  word. 
''What  then  pleases  them  so?"  That 
woollen  stuff  whose  Tarentine  dye  is 
such  a  good  imitation  of  the  violet. 

Turning  now  to  the  seats  Ave  mark  first 
the  orchestra,  the  ])art  of  the  auditorium 
nearest  the  stage,  with  its  four  low  steps 
or  seri(\s  of  seats  ((/radus)  covchmI  Avith 
iiiarl)le.  Since  these  steps  are  entirely 
too  low  for  anyone  to  sit  on  them  with 
comfort,  we  may  conclud(^  that  the  local 
dignitaries  who  had  reserved  ])laces  here 
(see  below,  ])age  14^)  sat  on  bisellia  or 
chairs  brought  to  the  theater  by  their 
slaves.  At  the  toi)  of  tlu^  orchestra  there 
^^■as,  no  doubt,  a  stone  balustrade,  like 
that  st'U  to  be  seen  at  the  top  of  the 
orchestra  in  the  Small  Theater  (fig.  7), 
^<  jiarating  the  steps  or  gradus  of  the  or- 
<  'lestra  from  a  praecinctio  ('girdle,'  'belt') 
'  landing  (lobby)  above.  This  landing  is 
r  ached  from  the  orchestra  ])y  flights  of 
>^'''])s  wliich  break  the  line  of  the  balus- 
t' ule  at  three  points. 

Xext  comes  the  media  cavea,  or  central 
]);irt  of  the  auditoriimi.  Here  the  gradus 
't  '  divid(Hl  by  six  stairways  (scalae) 
iiiio  seven  wedges  (citnei).  At  the  top  of 
ti  •'  media  cavea  is  a  second  praecinctio, 
h  "unded  on  the  far  side  by  a  high  wall. 
^he  latter  is  pierced  by  six  doors,  desig- 
^i:>ted  by  the  Romans  by  the  striking 
term  vomitoria,  corresponding  to  the  six 


scalae:  these  lead  out  into  the  corridor 
(crypfa)  that  runs  round  beneath  the 
sum  ma  cavea  or  gallery.  The  sum  ma 
cavea  was  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide 
and  sloped  downw^ard  at  an  angle  of  forty 
degrees.  It  conta'ned  probably  not  more 
than  four  rows  of  seats  (gradus);  there 
were  probab'.y  here  too  six  scalae  and  as 
many  vomitoria,  leading  out  in  jxart  to  the 
Forum  Triangulare,  to  the  west,  in  part  to 
a  corridor  which  in  its  turn  gave  access  to 
the  neighboring  streets,  na  a  great  open 
S})ac(^  l)eliind  (north  of)  the  rounded, 
arched  exterior  of  the  theater. 

Some  of  the  marble  seats  of  the  media 
cavea  are  still  in  situ.  On  a  i)art  of  these, 
individual  ])laces,  a  little  less  than  sixteen 
inches  wide,  are  marked  off  by  vertical 
lines  in  front.  The  jJaces  are  also  num- 
bered. Thev  mav  have  belonged  to  some 
corporation  or  guild  (collegium:  there 
Avere  many  such  at  Ponii>eii)  which  found 
it  necessary,  in  ord(4*  to  avoid  confusion, 
to  assign  seats  to  its  members  by  numbers. 
We  may  note  that  at  Atlu^ns  similar  lines 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  Dionysiac  theater: 
the  space  granted  there  to  each  spectator 
is  somewhat  less.  London  theater  man- 
agers allow  but  twelve  inclies  to  each 
spectator  in  the  gallery.  In  the  i)leach- 
ers'  at  American  ball  games  sixteen 
inches  per  spectator  is  a  liberal  allowance. 
Frequently,  the  rear  i)art  of  each  gradus 
was  somewhat  depressed,  and  the  lower 
}:)art  of  the  front  face  of  the  next  higher 
gradus  was  cut  back  somewhat,  to  make 
convenient  resting  ])laces  for  the  feet  of 
the  spectators.  In  this  w^ay,  too,  protec- 
tion was  afforded  to  the  holiday  (white) 
garments  of  the  spectators.  This  device 
is  to  be  seen,  for  inskmce,  in  the  Small 
Theater  at  Pompeii  and  in  the  Dionysiac 
Theater  at  Athens  (figs.  7  and  4). 

The  crypta  or  corridor  was  about  ten 
feet  wide  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in 


TlIK  HOMAX  T1IJ:ATKI{ 


14' 


4 


i 


i 


.uld  think  the  jX'oplc  a  show  to  Ix'sliul-     satlac:    these   Ivnd  out    into    tl 


1  more  carcfullv  even  than  the  «»:an 


ic  corridoi 


l( 


w 


liiviiijj;   him   vcrv   nine 


■h   tl 


\v  more   to 


i'rii[)t(i)    that     runs    round    honcnith    the 


siuNfHd    atrcd     or    uallcrv 


Tl 


ic    sunnna 


c(ir((t  was  about  ten  oi-  twc^lve  feet  wide 


:< ok   at.      Hut    for   the   poets — \w   wouhl 
liiink  thcni  to  Ix'  telhii:;  their  tales  to  a 
(leaf  ass.      Foi-  what  voices  have  been  of    and  slo])ed  downward  at  an  an«»,ie  of  forty 
rce  enou<»h   to  overcome  the   din   with     deforces.      It  contaned  ])rol)al)ly  not  more 


w 


hicl 


1     OUI" 


theat 


res    rin 


<>■ 


ou    wou 


id 


tl 


lan    foui'   rows  of   seat 


(jrdihfs 


tl 


lere 


Hini)()se    It     was    the    ( iar<»;anian    torest  i     .•     .         .         •           /            i 

'  '•            ,1     rp                             .   ,,       ,       ^  wei'e  ])rol)at)  \'  here  too  six  sctildv  and  as 

inarmuor  t  p.e  1  uscan  sea  :  such  theshouts  ' 

uith  which  the  o-ames  are  viewed,  and  the  ^^^'^'^y  rnmiloria.  leadiuiiout  in  ])art  to  the 

rks  of  ait  and  knick-knacks  of  foreign  Forum 'rrian<iulare.  to  the  west ,  iii  ],art  to 


wo 

we; 


idth    with    which    tlu^   actor    bedizen; 


iiinse 


A 


S      S( 


oon    as    lie    steps    on    the     jj 


!i  corridor  which  in  its  turn  uave  access  to 


-laii'c  ri^ht  hands  clash  with  left,     'ila 


le  neiuhborinu  streets,  ini  a  ureat  ojX'U 


;ii( 


I 


in\'thinii' 


Not 


one     wor( 


1      sp,ace    behind    (north    of)    the    rouiK 


led, 
archeci   extei'ior  of   the   theater 

Some  of  the  marble  seats  of  the  iihiI'ki 
(■(in (I  are  still  /'//  sHu.     ( )n  a  ])art  of  these, 
rurninii  now  to  the  seats  we  mark  first     individual  places,  a  little  less  than  sixteen 


"What  then  pleases  them  so?"  That 
woollen  stuff  whose  Tarentine  dye  is 
-iicli  a  iiood  imitation  of  the  violet. 


the  orchestra,  the]>artof  the  auditorium 


inches  wide,   ai'e  marked  off  b^-  vertical 


iie.'irest  thesta<i'e,  with  its  tour  low  steps    hues  m  tront 


T\w  \,h 


ices  ai'e  also  num- 


nr   series  oi   seats   ((//'(kius)   a 


)\'ered    with     bered.      ^'luy  may  liax'e  belonged  to  some 


///. 


tl 


lere 


iiiatble.  Since  thes!'  stei)s  are  entirely  cori^oration  or  ,uuild  (colhf/in 
to.)  low  for  anyone  to  sit  on  them  with  were  many  such  at  Pom];eii )  which  found 
(omfort,  we  may  conclude  that  the  local  it  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion, 
''iiiiiitaries  who  had  reserved  ])laces  here    to  assion  se -ts  lo  it  s  members  by  numbers. 

We  ma\'  note  that  at  Athens  similar  lines 


I  •( ' 


bel 


ow,   ])a<»;e 


it 


at    on 


hisdl 


Id  or 


;iirs   broimiit    to   the  theater    bv   their    are  to  be  seen  in   the  I  )ionysia( 


theat 


ca- 


ves. 


At  the  to])  of  the  orchestra  there     the  sp,ace  <»ranted  there  to  each  s])ectator 


no  doubt,  a  stone   balustrade,   like    i' 


nnew 


htit   le-^s.      London  theater  man- 


I    stdl   to    be  seen   at    the    to])   of   the    a.iiers    allow    but    twelve    inches    to    each 

s])ectator  in  the  .uallery.      In  the  'bleach- 


•liestra  in  the  Small  1'heater  (fii»:.  7 


:u-atin^-  the  ste])s  or  (jrathis  of  the  or-    crs     at     American     ball     .uan 


11 


DC 


sixteen 


<tra  from  a  pntccinclio  (■<'irdle.'  'belt')     indues  ])er  sjx'ctator  is  a  liberal  allowance 
:indino(  lobby)  above.     This  landinji"  is     Freciuently.  the  rear  ])art  of  each  f//v/J 
<'hed  from  the  orchestra  bv  Hijihts  of    was  somewhat   depressed,  and  the  lower 


IIS 


\\ 


hich  break  the  line  of  the  balus-    ])art  of  the  front  face  of  the  next  hiiiiier 


le  at  three  ])oint; 


f/ 


radiis  was  cait  back  somewhat,  to  make 


Next  come 


th 


r/ 


le  died  Id  cdrcd,  or  ceil 


tral  convenient  I'estinji  ])laces  for  the  t"e<'t    of 

•t  of  the  auditorium.      Here  the  (jnuhis  the  s])ectators.      In  this  way.  too,  ],rotec- 

divided    by    six    stairways     (scalac)  tion  was  afforded  to  the  holiday   (white) 

l<i;es  icinici).      At  the  to])  of  ,uarm(>nts  of  the  sp,ectators.      This  device 


>  seven  we( 
r/ 


iiicdid  cdi'di   IS  a   seconc 


I  /,/ 


dccnic 


tin,     is  to  be  seen,  for  instance,  in   the  Smal 


h    mded  on  the  far  side  bv  a  hi<ih  wall.     Theater  at  Pompeii  and  in  the  Dionysiac 


<'  'after  is  ])ierced  by  six  doors,  desi«;- 


l( 


l( 


Theater  at  Athens  (fii'<.  7  ar.d  4) 


''-('(I   by   the    Romans   by   the    strikin<i-         The  rrij/ild  or  corridor  was  about   ten 
h  !  in  ridditdi'ld,  (M)rresp,()ndin<i-  to  the  six    feet  wide  and  from  tw(^lve  to  fiftecai  feet  in 


14S 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


149 


height.     It  had  a  vaulted  roof  and  was 
cool,  airy,  sweet,  a  comfortable  loungins- 
place.     It  is  apparent  that  the  spectators 
could  find  their  way  to  their  seats  with 
the  utmost  ease  and  could  scatter  again 
quickly,  in  case  of  need,  as  for  instance 
if  rain  fell   unexpectedly.     Those  in  the 
sum  ma  carca  could  enter  or  depart  without 
coming  into  contact  at  all  with  the  specta- 
tors in  the  media  cavea  or  the  orchestra 
The  occupants  of  the  media  cavea  had  their 
choice  of  entrances  and  exits;  they  nrght 
enter,  from  above,  via  the  cnjp'a.  or  from 
below  by  way  of  the  parodoi  and  the  or- 
chestra.    The  orchestra  could  l)e  entered 
from  above  by  way  of  the  cry pta,  or  by  the 
parodai.    The  parodoi,  it  will  be  seen  by  a 

glance  at  figure  6, 
were  divided  into 
two  passageways. 
Of  these,  the  one 
nearer  the  stage, 
level  throughout  its 
length,  led  directly 
into  the  bottom  of 
the  orchestra.  The 
other  passageway 


FlCi.  b».      IHEATER 
TICKET 


was  an  inclined  plane  which  led  up  on  the 
praecinctio  behind  (above)  the  orchestra. 
It  mav  be  added  that  tickets,  of  metal  or 

ft. 

])one,    called  tesserae  theatrales,  showing 
clearly  the  seat  to  which  the  bearer  was 
entitled,  have  come  down  to  us.    One  (fig. 
8)  shows  that  the  bearer  was  entitled  to  a 
seat  in  the  cavea  secunda  (or  media) /m  the 
third  cuneus,  and  the  eighth  ijradu.s,  at  a 
performance  of  the  (Hasina  of  Plautus. 
This  play,  by  the  way,  is  extant,  though  in 
mutilated  form.      This  great  convenience 
of  entrance  and   exit  was  accomplished 
mainlv   bv  means  of  the  praecinctiones, 
wliich  cut  the  theater  into  strongly  mark- 
ed divisions. 

Yet    anotlier   purpose  was  served    by 
the  divisions   effected  by  the  praecinc- 


tiones.    In  the  Dionysiac  theater  at  Ath- 
ens the  row  of  seats  nearest   the   stage 
consisted  of  roomy  marble  seats  or  thrones 
(25  inches  wide  by  23  deep) .    Since,  as  has 
been  well  said,  the  spectator  at  Athens 
who  sat  watching  a  tragedy  or  a  comedy 
was  taking  part  in  a  religious  ceremony,  so 
close  was  the  relat'.on  between  the  drama 
and    rehgion,    we  are   not  surprised  to 
learn  that  these  thrones  were  reserved 
jM-imarily  for  tlu^  priests,  then  for  other 
dignitaries  of  the  city,  or  for  foreign  am- 
l)assadors,  or,  as  a  si)ecial  mark  of  honor, 
for  other  persons.     At  Rome  distinctions 
between    spectators   long   remained    un- 
known.    When  distinctions  were  made, 
the  best  seats  were  not  assigned  to  the 
priests,  for  the  drama  had  no  such  relig- 
ious significance  for  the  Romans  as  it  had 
had  for  the  Greeks,  but  were  set  apart  for 
the  more  aristocratic  portion  of  the  com- 
munity.    The  orchestra  was  by  law  set 
apart  for  the  senators;  later,  perhaps  after 
67  B.C.,  the  first  fourteen  rows  back  of 
the  orchestra  were,  by  the  law  of  Roscius 
Otho,  reserved,  at  Rome,  for  the  knights. 
Similar  arrangements  obtained  in  Roman 
theaters  outside  of  Rome,  though  in  a  pro- 
vincial town  like    Pompeii    as  many  as 
fourteen  rows  of  seats  can  hardly  have 
been  necessary  for  the  knights. 

Augustus  regulated  the  whole  matter 
afresh.     He  confirmed  the  special  privi- 
leges already  granted  to  senators  and  t(» 
knights;  he  relegated  the  lowest  classes 
to  the  highest  seats,  and  made  the  women 
sit  apart,  likewise  in  the  uppermost  places. 
It  is  ]:)ossible  that  he  was  the  sponsor  als<  • 
for  the  more  exact  regulations  laid  dowi 
concerning   i)laces   of    honor   for   magis- 
trates, priests,  etc.     The  seats  of  highes. 
honor  were  those  on  the  tribunalia.     Her ' 
the  editor  and  the  emperor  sat,  on  th^ 
riglit  side;  on  the  other  tribunal  the  Vesttl 
Virgins  had  their  places,  and  with  theiii 


the  em])ress.  Augustus's  regulations 
?peni  to  have  remained  unaltered,  at 
least  in  essentials.  Domitian  reenacted 
them  or  at  least  enforced  them  more 
strictly. 

The  Small  Tiieater,  or  Odeum  (fig.  7), 
•At  Pompeii  is  noteworthy  in  that  it  had  a 
permanent    roof;    tliis   is   proved   by  an 


at  Athens  had  a  roof  of  cedar,"  with  prob- 
ably an  open  space  for  light  in  the  mid- 
die."  There  is  no  sum  ma  cavea.  Over 
the  parodoi  are  tribunalia,  with  special 
seats  al)ove  them.  The  seats  of  the 
auditorium  are  not  carried,  as  usuab  to 
the  front  of  the  stage,  but  are  terminated 
bv  a  wall  some  distance  j'rom  the  stage. 


FIG.  9.     PART  OF  CORK  MODEL  OF  POMl^EII  SFIOWIXG  THE  TWO  THEATERS, 

NATIONAL  MUSEUM,   NAPLES. 


iii-'-ription  found  within  the  theater. 
1  'iis  roof  was  no  doubt  of  wood;  the  side 
^v,i!l.s  were  not  strong  enough  to  carry  a 
V;  ilted  stone  ceiling  or  roof.  The  roof, 
fuither,  is  thought  to  have  been  pyramidal 
ill  >liape;  there  were  windows,  perhaps,  in 
tlic  walls  ])etween  tlu^  highest  seats  and 
tin  roof.     The  Odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus 


This  theater,  which  Avas  used  i)erhaps 
rather  as  a  music-hall  (the  roof  would 
improve  the  acoustic  properties  of  the 
structure),  could  accommodate  no  more 
than  1,500  persons;  the  Large  Theater  at 
l\)mpeii  could  give  seats  to  5,000. 

The  great  size  of  the  theater  proi)er 
(as  distinet  from   the    odeum  or  music- 


\\s 


ART  AM)  A1U'HAK()L(K;Y 


THK  1^)MAX  THKATKIi 


149 


lu'iiiht.     It   IkuI  a  vaulted  roof  and  was 
cool.  airy,  sweet,  a  coinfortal)!!'  loun^inji- 
])lac('.      It  is  a])i)areiit  tliat  tlie  spertators 
eouM  find  their  way  to  their  seats  with 
the  utmost  case  and  couhl  scatter  a<!;ain 
(luickly,  in  case  of  nee<l.  as  for  instance 
if  rain   fell    unexpectedly.     Those  in   the 
.s-////////^/(7//v7/ could  enter  or  depjii-t  without 
coniinu  into  contact  at  all  with  the  s])ccta- 
tor-  in  the  /n((h'(i  nirra  or  the  orchestra 
The  occu])ants  of  the  mcdid  ntrai  had  their 
choice  of  entrances  and  exits:  they  nr^ht 
enter,  from  ahove.  via  the  cnjp'iL  or  trom 
heli.w  l.y  way  of  the  paro'loi  and  the  or- 
chestra.    The  orchestra  could  he  entered 
from  above  hy  way  of  the  r/7//>/^/.or  hy  the 
p„rn<h,;.     The  piiruihu,  it  will  he  seen  hy  a 

oiancc'  at  fi,t!;in'e  (i, 
were  di\ide<l  into 
two  passa«i:eways. 
Of  these,  the  one 
nearer  the  st  a  iic. 
level  throughout  its 
len<ith.  le(l  directly 
into  the  bottom  of 
the  orchestra.  The 
ot  her  pass:i<ieway 


IK,.  V.    rniiA'iT.ij 

TICKKT 


wa>  an  inclined  plane  which  led  U])  on  the 
prihvinvtio  helnnd  (above)  the  orchestra. 
It  may  be  added  that  tickets,  of  metal  or 
bone,    called    Ussvnu    thcfttralrs.   showin<>; 
clearly  the  seat  to  which  the  bearer  was 
entitled,  have  come  down  to  us.     ()ne(fi^. 
S)  shows  that  the  bearer  was  entitled  to  a 
seat  in  the  cdrcd  secnnda  (or  incdhDAW  the 
third  c////r//.s-,  and  the  ei^;hth  (jntdus,  at  a 
])erformaiice  of   the   ( ^asina    of    IHautus. 
This  ])lay,  by  the  way.  is  extant,  though  in 
nuitilated  form.      This  o;reat  convenience 
of   entrance  and    exit  was  accomi)lished 
mainly    by   means  of   the  prdirinctiifncs, 
which  cut  the  theater  into  stron<rly  mark- 
ed divisions. 

Yet    another   i)urpose  was   served    by 
the   divisions    effected  by   the  pmccinc- 


t/(fnrs.      In  the  Dionysiac  theater  at  Ath- 
ens  the  row  of  seats  nearest    the    sta<tv 
c()nsist(Ml  of  roomy  marl  )le  seats  or  throne> 
(2.")  inches  wide  by  2:^  dee])).     Since,  as  has 
been  well   said,    the   spectator  at  Athens 
who  sat  watching:  a  trajicdy  or  a  comedy 
wastakin<'])art  in  a  reli*j;ious  ceremony,  so 
close  was  the  relafon  betwcH^n  tlu^  drama 
and     religion,    we   are    not    sm-prised   to 
learn    that    these    thrones   were   reserved 
primarily  for  the  ])riests.  then  for  other 
dio-nitaries  of  the  citv.  or  for  forei^in  am- 
bassadors,  or.  as  a  s])ecial  mark  of  honor, 
for  other  persons.      At   Home  distinctions 
between    s])ectators    lon«»-    remained    un- 
known.     When   (Ustinctions   were   made, 
the  best    seats  were   not   assi«»;ned  to  the 
priests,  for  the  drama  had  no  such  reli*-- 
ioussio-nificancefor  the  Romans  as  it  had 
had  for  the  (Ireeks.but  were  set  a])art  for 
th(>  more  aristocratic  i)ortion  of  the  com- 
numity.     The  orchestra  was  by  law  set 
apart  for  the  senators;  later.  perha])s  after 
()7  B.C..  the  first  fourteen  rows  back  of 
tiie  orchestra  were,  by  the  law  of  Roscius 
Ot  ho.  reserved,  at  Rome,  for  the  knights. 
Similar  arranji-ements  obtaincMl  in  Roman 
theaters  outsi(h' of  Rome,  thou<!:h  in  a  ])ro- 
vincial    town   like    Pomiieii    as  many  a> 
fourteen   rows  of  seats  can   hardly  have 
been  necessary  for  the  kni^rhts. 

Auj2;ustus  rejiulated  the  whole  matter 
afresh.     He  confirmed  the  s])ecial  ])rivi 
leo;(>s  already  <i-ranted  to  senators  and  t- 
kni<ihts:   he   relejiated  the  lowest   classe 
to  the  hi^iiiest  seats,  and  made  the  wonie? 
sit  a])art.  likewise  in  the  ui)])ermost  i)lace- 
It  is  possible  that  he  was  the  sixHisor  ab  • 
for  the  more  exact  rc'iiilations  laid  (low 
con('ernin«»;    ])laces    of    honor    for   ma^i^ 
trates.  priests,  etc.      The  seats  of  hi.t»;h<'- 
honor  were  those  on  the  trihundlfd.      lici 
the  (difdr  and   the  emperor  sat,   on   tl 
ri^ht  side;  on  the  othcM-  tribunal  the  Vest:  1 
Viro-his  had  their  places,  and  with  theii 


le     emi)ress.       Au<2;ustus*s      re^iulations  at  Athens  had  a  roof  of  cedar.*' with  ])rol)- 

eni    to    have    remained    unaltered,    at  ably  an  open  space  l"or  li^ht  in  the  mid- 

a<t    in  es.^entials.      Domitian   refMiactecl  die."     There   is  no  sunitnd  cdrai.     ()v(n' 

iieni    or    at    least    enforced    them    more  the   pdrodoi  are  Irihundlid.    with   s])ecial 

^nictly.  seats    above    them.     The    seats    of    the 

The  Small  Theater,  or  ( )deum  (fi^.  7).  auditorium  are  not   carrie(l,  as  usual,  to 

;tt  Pom]:)eii  is  noteworthy  in  that  it  had  a  the  front  of  the  sta<i'e,  but  are  terminated 

jH'i-manent     I'oof:    this   is   pi-o\-ed   by    an  by  a  wall  some  distance  from  the  stajje. 


i 


irc.  't.    I'AHT  oi' ("oitK  .\[oi:)i:f.  or  i'o\rci;ii  snowixc;  mi:  I'Wo  rmi.vrEiis, 

XATIoXAL  Mrsi:i  M,    XAPl.KS. 

liption     found    within     the     tlnvder.  This    theater,    which    was    used   perlia])s 

•<  roof  was  no  doubt  of  wood;  the  side  rather  as  a  music-hall  (the   roof   would 

!<  were  not  st ron<'-  enou<ih  to  carry  a  improve    the   acoustic   ])ro])erties   of   the 

ited  stone  ceilinji;  or  roof.     The  roof,  structure).   couM  acconunoihite  no  .more 

her,  is  thou<ilit  to  have  been  i)yramidal  than  I ..")()()  persons;  the  Larj-c  Theater  at 

(ia])e;  there  were  windows,  ))erhaps.  in  Pompeii  could  .tiive  seats  to  ."),()()(). 

walls  between  the  hi<ihest  seats  and  The   "reat    size   of   the   theater  proper 

roof.     The  Odeum  of  Ilenxh's  Atticus  (as  distinct    from   the    odeum   or  music- 


150 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


151 


hall),  especially  in  Greece,  made  a 
permanent  roof  out  of  the  (luestion. 
Among  the  Romans  a  curtain  {velum  or 
velarium)  Avas  frequently  drawn  over  the 
theater.  This  curtain  was  supported  ])y 
rcpes  stretched  from  masts  set  along  the 
bounchng  wall  of  tlu^  theater.  \'alerius 
:\Iaximus  declares  that  such  awnings  were 
introchiced  in  78 B.  C.  Lucretius,  arguing 
that  all  bodies  are  constantly  throwing  off 
thin,  filmy  i^articles,  e.g.,  particles  of  color, 
goes  on  to  say: 

This  is  done  In'  the  yellow  and  red  and 
blue  awnings,  when  they  are  spread  over 
large  tiieaters  and  flutter  as  they  stretch 
across  their  poles  and  crossl^eams,  for 
tlien  they  dye  the  seated  assemblage 
with  their  color  and  all  the  show  of  tlie 
stage  and  the  richly  attired  company  of 
the  fathers  and  compel  them  to  (lance  in 
their  color. 

In  another  place  the  same  poet  declares 
that  the  clouds 

give  forth  a  sound  over  the  levels  of  the 
wide-stretching  up])er  world,  as  at  times  a 
canvas  awning  stretched  over  large  thea- 
ters makes  a  crackling  noise,  as  it  flaps 
among  the  masts  and  beams;  sometimes, 
rent  by  the  boistc^'ous  gales,  it  madly 
howls  and  closely  imitates  the  rasping 
noise  of  j^ieces  of  paper. 

At  Pompeii  advertisements  of  gladiatorial 
combats  sometimes  contained  a  promise 
that  there  would  l)e  an  awning. 

AVe  get  from  the  Large  Theater  at 
Pom]>eii  some  light  on  the  devices  used  in 
connection  with  the  velum.  On  the  inner 
side  of  the  ])oun(ling  wall  which  runs  aloi  g 
the  west  side  of  the  theater  are  projecting 
blocks  or  corbels  of  basalt,  standing  out  a 
foot  or  more;  in  these  are  holes,  about 
eight  inches  square.  At  least  eight  of 
these  corbels  can  be  plainly  traced,  by 
means  of  the  shadows  they  cast,  in  figure 
6.  In  the  blocks  which  form  the  coping 
of  the  wall  are  incisions  over  the  holes 


in  the  corbels.     Below  the  corbels  in  the 
praecinctio    at    the    top    of    the    summa 
cavea    are    holes   which   go    down    three 
feet  or  more.     Masts  passed  through  the 
incisions  in  the  coping  and  the  holes  in 
the    corbels    and    sank    into    the    holes 
in    the   praecinctio.     From    these   masts 
were    stretched    the    roi)es    which    su])- 
ported   the    awning.      In    the    C\)liseuin 
and    the  great    theater   at    Orange    the  N 
devices  for   carrying   the   masts   are  on 
the    outside.     At    Pompeii,    where    the 
theaters  face  the  south  and  so  received 
the  sun  the  major  i)art  of  the  day,  an    ] 
awning  in  the  Large  Theater  was  a  desid- 
eratum  (the  Small   Theater  had  a  roof: 
see    above).     Indeed,    Roman    tradition 
declared  that  the  velum  was  a  Cam])anian 
invention.     \'itruvius  specifically  directs 
that  the  theater  shall  not  have  a  southern 
ex]X)sure;    but    at    Pompeii,    manifestly, 
convenience    of    building,    through    the 
possibility  of  laying  so  much  of  the  Large 
Theater  against  the  1. ill-side,  outweigluMJ 
considerations  of  health. 

Next  we  corsider  exits.  Mtruvius  de- 
clares that  the  builders  of  theaters  should 
provide  many  si^acious  entrances  (exits). 
so  arranged  that  the  ui)per  shall  be  wholly 
disccmnected  from  the  lower,  and  tliat 
all  shall  run  in  straight  lines,  without 
turns,  that  tlierc^  may  be  nothing  to  check 
the  egress  of  the  spectators  in  case  of 
sudden  emergc^ncy.  We  have  at  Pomi:)eii 
exceptionally  favorable  opportunities  for 
learning  how,  in  the  matter  of  exits,  facts 
com])are(l  with  theory  in  Roman  th(^at(  r- 
builthng. 

Citizens  of  Pompeii  itself  would  find 
their  way  from  the  city  to  the  Lariic 
Theater  most  readily  via  the  Forum 
Triangulare.  This  they  would  enter  from 
the  north.  In  the  high  wall  bound- 
ing the  Large  Theater  on  its  we-^t  f 
side  there  Avere  three    doors    of    service 


rn  theater-goers.  The  northernmost  leads 
into  an  open  space  behind  the  rounded 
arched  exterior  at  the  back  (or  north  side) 
of  the  theater  (see  fig.  9).  Close  at 
hand,  in  this  open  space,  is  an  entrance 
TO  the  cri/pla  or  corridor  l)eneath  the  seats 
of  the  gallery.  Passing  within  this  en- 
trance and  crossing  the  crypta,  one  issues 
l)y  a  vomitorium  directly  opposite  the  en- 
trance upon  the  praecinctio  at  the  top  of 


or,  if  he  will,  by  at  least  two  staircases  to 
the  summa  cavea  or  gallery.  By  the 
middle  doorway  in  the  west  boundary 
wall  one  may  step  down  a  foot  or  so  direct- 
ly into  the  crypta,  cross  that,  and  by  the 
vomitorium  nearest  the  stage  on  the  right- 
hand  side  reach  the  praex^inctio  at  the  top 
of  the  media  cavea.  Doorwa3^s  and  vomi- 
toria  are  six  feet  high.  From  this  middle 
doorway,  again,  a  staircase  leads  to  the 


iiotograph  by  Ralph  Van  Deman  Magoffin. 

FIG.  10.    THE  ROMAX  THEATER  AT  TUSCULUM. 


ti.'.'  media  cavea,  twenty-four  rows  of  seats 
a' ovethe  orchestra.  This  vomitorium  is 
tie  second  from  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
"^^ige.  Instead  of  entering  the  crypta, 
lio\vever,  one  may  keep  to  his  left  around 
tfic  open  space  behind  the  arched  exterior 
^^  the  theater,  to  gain  access  to  the 
'  I'pta  l)y  at  least  three  other  doorways 
'^^id  across  the  crypta  to  the  praecinctio, 


summa  cavea.  The  staircase  comes  out 
on  a  corridor  which  ran  around  behind  the 
summa  cavea.  Three  arches  of  this  corri- 
dor 3^et  remain;  the  foundations  of  twenty- 
fiv^  or  thirty  others  are  visible,  swinging 
far  round  to  the  left  side  of  the  theater.  By 
the  third  or  southernmost  doorway  in  the 
west  boundary  wall  one  ma>'  mount  by  a 
staircase  to  the  suvima  cavea.     One  may, 


150 


Airr  AND  AK('IIAK()L()C;V 


THK  ROMAN  THKATKK 


151 


hall),  csixM-ially  in  (ircccc,  luadc  a 
])('nnaii(Mit  root"  out  of  the  (lucstion. 
Ainoiii2;  the  Pioinans  a  curtain  (rclinti  or 
rcldriiitn)  was  fn^iucntly  drawn  over  the 
theater.  This  curtain  was  su|)]>ortc(l  hy 
ro]-(>s  strctclKMl  tVom  masts  set  alonii;  the 
houndinii-  wall  of  the  theatei'.  \'al(M-ius 
Maxinnis  declares  that  such  awnin.ns  were 
introduced  in7SP>.(\  Lucretius.ari»iiin<'- 
that  all  bodies  are  constantly  thr()win«»-  off 
thin,  tilniy  ])articles.e.<»-..  jiart  ides  of  color, 
iioes  on  to  sa\' : 

Thi-  is  done  hy  the  yellow  and  red  and 
l)lue  awnin«is.  wlien  the>'  are  si)read  over 
lar«»;e  theatei's  ami  flutter  as  they  sti'etch 
across  their  poles  and  ci-ossheanis,  toi- 
then  they  dye  the  seated  a.ssenihlaii'e 
with  their  color  and  all  th.e  show  of  the 
sta^e  and  the  richly  attired  coniptniy  of 
the  fathers  and  conii)el  them  to  dance  in 
tlieir  color. 

In  another  i)lace  the  same  poet  declares 
that  the  clouds 

«>ive  forth  a  sotmd  oyrv  the  levels  of  the 
wide-stretchinii  ui)per  world,  as  at  tunes  a 
canvas  iiwnini!;  stretched  over  larti'e  tliea- 
ters  makes  a  cracklin^i' noise,  as  it  flaps 
anions  tin*  masts  and  beams;  sometimes, 
rent  by  the  boisterous  iiales,  it  madly 
howls  and  closely  imitates  the  rasping; 
noise  of  pieces  of  paper. 

At  Pom])eii  adv<'rtisements  of  uiadiatorial 
combats  sometimes  contained  a  ])romise 
that  there  would  be  an  awniuii'. 

^\'e  uct  from  the  Lar^c  'Hieater  at 
l*om])eii  some  liiiht  on  the  devices  used  in 
connection  with  the  nliun.  On  the  inner 
side  of  the  boundin**;  wall  which  runsaloi  <2; 
the  Avest  side  of  the  theater  are  i)rojectin<;- 
blocks  or  corbels  of  basalt,  standin<»;  out  a 
foot  or  more;  in  these  are  holes,  about 
ei<2;ht  inches  scjuare.  At  least  ei^ht  of 
these*  corbels  can  be  ])lainly  traced,  by 
means  of  the  shadows  th(\v  cast,  in  figure 
().  In  the  blocks  Avhich  form  the  c()])in<i: 
of  the  wall   are  incisions  ov(>r  the   holes 


in  the  corbels,      l^elow  the  corbels  in  th.' 
pnnclndio    at    the    to])    of     the    sunnni 
(■(fi'cd     are     holes    which    ^o    down    thr(<' 
feet   or  more.      Masts  ])assed  through  tl.' 
incisions   in  the   co])in<i:  and  the  holes  in 
the     corbels    and    saidv    into    the     hob- 
in    the    j>riuci ndio.      From    these    masN 
were     stretche(l    the    ro])es     which     sup- 
l)()rted    the    awnin.ii'.      In    the    Coliseum 
and     the   .ureat     theater    at     Oran.ue    tli. 
devices    for    carryin<i    the    masts    are   on 
the     outside.      At     Pom])eii.     where     tlir 
theaters  face  the  sotith  and  so  received 
the  stm   the  major  ])art    of   the  day,   an 
aAvnin.u  in  the  Lai'^'e  Theater  was  a  desid- 
eratum   (the  Small    Theatei'  had  a   rooi : 
see    above).      Indee<L     Homan    tradition 
declared  that  the  rdmn  was  a  ( 'am]>ani;ni 
invention.      X'itruvius  sj.ecifically  direct- 
that   the  theater  sh.all  not  ha\'e  a  southeni 
ex],ostn'e;    but     at     Pomp»eii.    manihstly. 
con\-enience    of    buildinu'.     throu.Lih     tli<' 
p,ossibility  of  layin,ii- so  much  of  the  baii:< 
Theater  a,i»ainst   the  1  ill-side,  outAvei'-hc'l 
considerations  of  health. 

N(  \1  we  col  s'der  exits.  X'itriivius  d-- 
clares  that  the  builders  of  theaters  shou  d 
])rovide  many  sj;acious  entrances  (exit-  . 
so  arran«»;ed  that  the  ui)])ei'  shall  be  wholv 
discoimected  from  the  lower,  and  tl:  •' 
all  shall  run  in  strai^h.t  lines,  witiio'it 
turns,  that  there  may  be  nothinii'  to  clie<  k 
the  ejiress  of  the  sp,ectators  in  case  n 
sudden  emer<;('ncv.  We  have  at  Pom]i'  ii 
exce])tionally  favorable  o])])ortunities  I  •! 
learning-  how,  in  the  matter  of  exits,  fat  - 
com];ared  with  theorv  in  Homan  theati  t- 
buildin«i. 

Citizens  of  Pomj-eii  itself  would  led 
their  way  from  the  city  to  the  Lai:' 
Theater  most  reatlily  via  the  I'^nh n 
Trianiiulare.  This  they  would  enter  fr<»'ii 
the  north.  In  the  hi.uh  wall  boun  1- 
inu'  the  Lar<»;e  Theater  on  its  w<  -i 
side   there   Avere    three    doors    of    >er\i  ' 


i 


M.  theater-^oers.  'Phe  northernmost  leads 
iiito  an  0])en  space  behind  the  rounded 
.iichod  exterior  at  the  back  (Or  north  side) 
(.f  the  theater  (see  fi^-.  \)).  Close  at 
iiaiid.  in  this  ojx'n  s])ace,  is  an  entrance 
In  the  cr}/pl(i  or  corridor  beneath  the  .seats 
of  the  <j:allery.  Passinfr  AA'ithin  this  en- 
trance and  erossinp:  the  rr/y/y/r/,  one  issues 
i»y  a  vomitorhitti  directly  o])])osite  the  en- 
trance upon  the  praecimiio  at  the  to])  of 


or,  if  he  Avill,  In'  at  least  tAvo  staircases  to 
the  sununn  cared  or  ffalh^w.  Bv  the 
middle  doorAvay  in  the  Avest  boundary 
Avail  one  may  ste])  doAvn  a  foot  or  so  direct- 
ly into  the  crf/pfo,  cross  that,  and  by  the 
Tomitoninn  neai'est  thestaji'e  on  the  rijz;ht- 
liand  side  reach  tlu^  pr(te(;indi()  at  the  top 
of  tlie  NNflid  caved.  DoorAA'ays  and  vomi- 
toria  are  six  feet  hi<!:h.  From  this  nn<ldle 
doorAvay,  a^ain.  a  stairca.se  leads  to  the 


nc.  10.   Tin:  KoMVN  Tm:Ari;i{  at  tisci  ijm. 


media  carea,  twent  A'-four  roAvs  of  seats 
•'  »ve  the  orchestra.  This  ratNitonufn  is 
'  second  from  the  ri<j:ht-hand  side  of  the 
"■  lie.  Instead  of  enterinji'  the  cri/pla. 
'i  «vever,  one  may  keej)  to  his  left  aroimd 
'  o])en  space  behind  the  arched  exterior 
"  the  theater,  Xu  ^ain  access  to  the 
'  '/>(('  by  at  least  three  other  doorAvays 
"■'•  d  across  the  cri/jftd  to  the  i>i'deci nctid. 


,sunnnd  carea.  The  staircase  comes  out 
on  a  corridor  Avhich  ran  around  behind  the 
sutfuna  carea.  Three  arches  of  this  corri- 
doryet  remain;  the  foundations  of  tAventy- 
fiA'e  or  thirty  others  are  visible,  sAvin^inp; 
farroundto  tladeft  sideof  the  theater,  Hy 
the  third  or  southernmost  doorway  in  the 
Avest  boundary  Avail  one  may  mount  by  a 
staircase  to  the  smtnna  carea.     One  may, 


152 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


however,  pass  all  three  doorways  in  this 
west  boundary  wall,  to  find,  some  steps 
further  south,  a  staircase  leading  down 
into  a  great  open  space,  called  the  Theater 
Area,  behind  (south  of)  the  stage  of  the 
Large  Theater  (see   fig.  9).     From   this 
open  space  he  may  gain  access  readily  to 
the  parodoi  of  the  Large  Theater,  and 
may  make  his  way  through  them  into  the 
orchestra  of  the  Large  Theater,  or  he  may 
enter  the  Small  Theater  by  its  right  par- 
odos,  or,  finally,  he  may  reach  Stabian 
Street  and  from  it  gain  ready  access  to  the 
Small  Theater  (see  the  next  paragraph). 
Suppose  one  wished  to  come  from  the 
country  to  witness  a  play  at  Pompeii. 
He  would  find  it  best  to  enter  the  city  by 
Stabian  Street,  which  ran  along  the  east 
side  of  the  Small  Theater.     In  a  minute 
or  two  after  passing   through  the  city 
gate  he  would  come  to  a  passage  which 
turned  left  (west),  at  right  angles,  into 
the  Theater  Area,  the  large  open  space 
already    mentioned    as    lying    south    of 
(behind)  the  Large  Theater.     From  the 
Theater  Area  he  could  reach  the  parodoi 
of  the  Large  Theater,  and  through  them 
its  orchestra,  or  he  could  mount  to  the 
Forum  Triangulare,  there  to  use  the  prop- 
er one  of  the  three  doorw^ays  in  the  west 
boundary   wall   of   the    Large    Theater. 
He  might,  however,  pass  by  this  entrance 
from  Stabian  Street  to  the  Theater  Area, 
to  find,   a  few  feet  further  on   (north), 
an  entrance  leading  directly,  by  a  step  or 
two,  from  Stabian  Street  into  the  left 
parodoH  of  the  Small  Theater.     Beyond 
this,  back  (north)  of  the  auditorium  of 
the  Small  Theater,  is  a  broad  passage- 
way, which  leads  straight  from  Stabian 
Street  into  the  left  parodos  of  the  Large 
Theater.     From  this  passageway,  again, 


one  may  reach,  by  a  very  broad  doorway 
in  the  middle  of  the  back  (north)  wall  of 
the   auditorium   of   the   Small   Theater, 
staircases  springing  right  and  left  (west 
and  east)  to  the  top  of  the  auditorium  of 
the  Small  Theater;  from  these  points  he 
could  make  his  way  readily  doAvn  to  any 
seat.     From  Stabian  Street,  again,  at  a 
point  some  distance  north  of  the  back 
wall    of    the    auditorium    of   tue    Small 
Theater,    a   steep    path    leads    upw^ards 
(west)  to  the  east  side  of  the  larger  theater 
at  a  point  near  that  vomitorium  which 
was  nearest  the  stage  on  the  left  hand 
side.     Finally,  from  Stabian  Street,  from 
a  point  still  further  north,  a  street  runs 
w^est,  from  which,  in  turn,  an  alley  runs 
south  on  the  east  side  of  the  Temple  of 
Isis,  till  it  enters  the  open  space  behind 
(north  of)  the  rounded  arched  exterior 
of  the  Large  Theater. 

We  see,  then,  that  at  Pompeii,  at  any 
rate,  the  exits  correspond  closely  to  the 
prescriptions  of  Vitruvius.     With  extra- 
ordinary ingenuity  the  builders  of  the    *j 
tw^o  theaters   utilized   the   opportunities 
afforded  by  the  peculiar  falling  away  of 
the  ground  in  this  quarter,  by  grouping 
the  two  theaters  so  closely  together,  and 
by  binding  them,  as  it  were,  into  a  single 
whole  by  an  array  of  entrances  and  exits 
so  well  calculated  to  serve  the  needs  of 
the  theater-going  public.     When  we  add 
that  the  stairways  were  of  stone,  in  walls 
themselves   of   concrete   with    facings  of 
brick  or  stone,  we  see  how  immensely 
superior,  in  the  matter  of  exits,  these  thea- 
ters were  to  the  best-equipped  theater  in 
our  o^vn  countrv. 


Columbia  University. 

(to  be  continued) 


FIG.  11.    THE  THE.\TER  AT  ASPEXDUS. 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 

{Concluded) 
CHARLES  KXAPP 


One  more  point  must  be  noticed  before 
V  leave  the  theaters  at  Pompeii  dc- 
>  li^ed  at  the  end  of  the  first  article  in 
t  last  number  of  Art  and  Archaeology, 
i  vi  back  wall  of  the  stage  (scaena)  in  the 
1  man  theater  was  regularly  pierced  by 
t'  ;ee  doorways.  The  stage-setting  of  a 
C'  ledy  (the  Romans  cared  far  more  for 
<•'  iiedy  than  for  tragedy)  called  for  a 
s^  •  et,  on  which  one,  two,  or  three  houses 
^^ '  uld  be  visible.  The  scener}-  was  so  ar- 
^''  Ked  that  the  doorways  of  the  houses 
''■''led  for  by  the  play  came  opposite  the 
'  l<  'orwavs  in  the  scaena.    In  each  side-wall 


of  the  stage  there  w^as,  as  one  would  suj)- 
pose  a  priori,  a  wide  entrance  to  the  stage. 
A  peculiar  convention  obtained  Avith 
respect  to  the  significance  of  these  side- 
entrances  to  the  stage — a  convention 
useful  indeed,  since  there  were  no  pro- 
grammes. If  an  actor  entered  by  the 
side-entrance  to  the  right  of  the  spectators 
it  was  understood  at  once  that  he  came 
from  the  city,  probably  from  its  Forum, 
within  which  the  scene  of  the  play  was 
laid.  If  he  entered  by  the  side-entrance 
to  the  left  of  the  spectators  it  was  under- 
stood that  he  was  coming    from  foreign 

187 


152 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


however,  pass  all  three  doorways  in  this 
west  boundary  wall,  to  find,  some  steps 
further  south,  a  staircase  leading  dowTi 
into  a  great  open  space,  called  the  Theater 
Area,  l)ehind  (south  of)  tlie  stage  of  the 
Large  Theater  (see   fig.  9).     From    this 
oi^en  space  he  may  gain  access  readily  to 
the  parofhi  of  the  Large  Theater,  and 
may  make  his  Avay  through  them  into  the 
orchestra  of  the  Large  Theater,  or  he  may 
enter  the  Small  Theater  ])y  its  right  par- 
ados, or,  finally,   he  may   reach  Stabian 
Street  and  from  it  gain  ready  access  to  the 
Small  Theater  (see  the  next  paragraph). 
Sui)pose  one  wished  to  come  from  the 
country  to  witness  a  play  at  Pompeii. 
He  would  find  it  best  to  enter  the  city  by 
Stabian  Street,  which  ran  along  the  east 
side  of  the  Small  Theater.     In  a  minute 
or  two  after   passing    through  the  city 
gate  he  would  come  to  a  passage  which 
turned  left  (west),  at  right  angles,  into 
the  Theater  Area,  the  large  open  space 
alread\'    mentioned    as    lying    south    of 
(behind)  the  Large  Theater.     From  the 
Theater  Area  he  could  reach  the  parodoi 
of  the  Large  Theater,  and  through  them 
its  orchestra,  or  he  could  mount  to  the 
Forum  Triangulare,  there  to  use  the  prop- 
er one  of  the  three  doorways  in  the  west 
boundary    wall    of   the    Large    Theater. 
He  might,  however,  pass  by  this  entrance 
from  Stabian  Street  to  the  Theater  Area, 
to  find,   a  few  feet   further  on    (north), 
an  entrance  leading  directly,  by  a  step  or 
two,  from  Stabian  Street  into  the  left 
parados  of  the  Small  Theater.     Beyond 
this,  back   (north)  of  the  auditorium  of 
the  Small  Theater,  is  a  broad  passage- 
wav,  which  leads  straight  from  Stabian 
Street  into  the  left  parodas  of  the  Large 
Theater.     From  this  ])assageway,  again. 


one  mav  reach,  bv  a  very  broad  doorway 
in  the  middle  of  the  back  (north)  wall  of 
the   aucUtorium   of   the   Small    Theater, 
staircases  springing  right  and  left  (west 
and  east)  to  the  top  of  the  auditorhmi  of 
the  Small  Theater;  from  these  i^ints  he 
could  make  his  way  readily  dowai  to  any 
seat.     From  Stabian  Street,  again,  at  a 
point  some  distance  north  of  the  back 
wall    of    the    auditorium    of    tn.e    Small 
Theater,    a    steep    ])ath    leads    upwards 
(west)  to  the  east  side  of  the  larger  theater 
at  a  point  near  that  vomitorium  which 
was  nearest  the  stage  on  the  left  hand 
side.     Finally,  from  Stabian  Street,  from 
a  point  still  further  north,  a  street  runs 
west,  from  which,  in  turn,  an  alley  runs 
south  on  the  east  side  of  the  Temple  of 
Isis,  till  it  enters  the  open  spacebehind 
(north  of)   the  rounded  arched  exterior 
of  the  Large  Thcniter. 

We  see,  then,  that  at  Pompeii,  at  an> 
rate,  the  exits  correspond  closely  to  thr 
prescriptions  of  Vitruvius.     With  extra- 
ordinary  ingenuity    the    builders   of   the 
two  theaters   utilized   the   ()])portunitie< 
afforded  by  the  peculiar  falling  away  i>f 
the  ground  in  this  (iuarter.  by  grouping 
the  two  theaters  so  closely  together,  an-l 
by  binding  them,  as  it  were,  into  a  singl-' 
whole  by  an  array  of  entrances  and  exi1> 
so  well  calculatcMl  to  serve  the  needs  (  t 
the  theater-going  ])ublic.     When  we  adl 
that  the  stairways  were  of  stcme,  inwali- 
themselves    of   concrete    with    facings  ff 
brick  or  stone,   we   see   how   innnensel ' 
su])erior.  in  the  matter  of  exits,  these  ther- 
ters  were  to  the  best-e(iui])])ed  theater  ii 
our  own  count rv. 


Cohnnhia  Utilversity. 

(to  lie  continued) 


4 


i 


nc;.  II.   Tin:  rin;\i'i;ii  at  asphndis. 


TH1-:  RO.MAX  THEATER 

(Concludttl) 

CHARLES  KXAPP 


Mie  mon*  point  must  be  noticed  before 
leave  the  theaters  at  P()nii)eii  de- 
'v(\  at  the  end  of  the  first  article  in 
last  number  (jf  Art  and  Archaealog!/. 
back  wall  of  the  stage  (scacfia)  in  the 
;ian  theater  was  regularly  ])icrced  by 
c  doorways.  The  stage-setting  of  a 
('(ly  (t\w  liomans  cared  far  more  for 
ledy  than  for  tragedy)  called  for  a 
''t,  on  which  on(N  two,  or  three  houses 
ild  be  visible.  The  scenery  was  so  ar- 
-i('d  that  the  doorways  of  the  houses 
1(1  for  by  the  ])la\'  came  o])posite  the 
rwavs  in  the  scacna.    Tn  eacji  side-wall 


of  the  stage  there  was,  as  one  would  su])- 
])ose  a  priori,  a  wide  entrance  to  the  stage. 
A  ])eculiar  convention  obtained  with 
res])ect  to  the  significance  of  these  side- 
entrances  to  the  stage— a  convention 
useful  indeed,  since  there  were  no  ])ro- 
iirammes.  If  an  actor  entered  by  the 
side-entrance  to  the  right  of  the  spectators 
it  was  understood  at  once  that  he  came 
from  the  city,  probably  from  its  Forum, 
within  which  the  scene  of  the  i)lay  was 
laid.  If  he  entered  by  thc^  side-entrance 
to  the  left  of  the  s])ectators  it  was  under- 
stood that   he  was  cominj.    from   foreign 

1S7 


THE  ro:man  theater 


189 


z\ 


' 


-  ~  t^j^,-;^;-?Tip^^f:';-;i^.:i 


From  Lanckoronski.  Stadte  Pamphijliens  und  Pisidiens,  1,  pi.  XXVll. 

FIG.  13.    RESTORATION  OF  THE  STAGE  OF  THE  THEATER  AT  ASPENDUS. 


parts,  via  the  harbor  of  the  to\\Ti  in  which 
the  play  was  laid  (ancient  Greek  travel, 
and  hence  the  travel  mentioned  so  fre- 
quently in  the  Roman  plays,  based  all  on 
Greek  originals,  was  by  sea  rather  than 

by  land). 

The  theater  at  Aspendus,  in  Pamphy lia, 
Asia  Minor,  is  the  best  preserved  of  Roman 
theaters  (fig.  1 1 )  •  There  are,  in  the  main 
part  of  the  auditorium,  thirty-nine  rows 
of  seats,  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
praednctio.  Upon  this  praecinctio  several 
vomitoria  give  from  a  crypta  running  round 
beneath  the  seats  of  the  media  cavea. 
The  parodoi  and  the  tribunalia  are  plainly 
visible;  the  tribunal  is  reached,  in  each 
case,  by  a  special  vomitorium  from  a 
covered     corridor.     Above    the    thirty- 


nine  rows  of  seats  is  a  covered  gal- 
lery, divided  into  fifty-three  box-like 
compartments.  Vitruvius  directs  that 
the  top  of  such  a  colonnade  shall  lie  in 
the  same  plane  as  the  top  of  the  scaena, 
the  wall  behind  the  stage,  for  the  reason 
that  the  voice  will  then  rise  with  equal 
power  till  it  reaches  the  highest  rows  of 
seats  and  the  roof.  If  the  roof  is  not  so 
high,  in  proportion  as  it  is  lower  it  will 
check  the  voice  at  the  point  which  the 
sound  first  reaches. 

The  scaena,  or  wall  at  the  back  of  the 
stage,  was  divided  into  three  stories  (the 
"komans  were  prone  to  divide  high  wall 
surfaces  thus  into  three  stories).  The 
scaena  was  here,  as  always,  richly  deco- 
rated  with   columns   and   statues.     The 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


189 


/ 


II 


'J 


F-om  Lanckoroii^ki.  SUidb    Pamphyliens  und  Pisiduns,  1,  pi.  XX\  II. 

FIC.  U.     HK.^TOKATIOX  OF  Tilt:  .STAGE  OF  THE  THEATER  AT  A.SPEXDU.^. 


parts,  via  the  liarhor  of  the  tcnni  in  wliicli 
the  play  was  laid  (ancient  Greek  travel, 
and  hence  the  travel  mentioned  so  fre- 
quently in  the  Roman  ])lays,  based  all  on 
Greek  originals,  Avas  hy  sea  rather  than 

by  land). 

The  theater  at  A.spendus,  in  Pami)ii\'Iia, 
Asia  Minor,  is  the  best  preserved  of  Roman 
theaters  (fig.  1 1).  There  are,  in  the  main 
part  of  the  aucUtorium,  tliirty-nine  rows 
of  seats,  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
praednctio.  I'pon  this  pmecinctio  several 
romitorid  J2;ive  from  a  crijpta  running;  round 
l)eneath  the  seats  of  the  niedid  caviit. 
The  parodiri  and  the  trihunalia  are  i)laiiil>' 
visii)le;  the  tribunal  is  reached,  in  each 
case,  l)v  a  s]M^cial  vanrHorinni  from  a 
covered     corridor.      Abovc^    the    thirty- 


nine  rows  of  s(»ats  is  a  covered  gal- 
lery, divided  into  fifty-three  box-like 
comi)artinents.  Vitruvius  (hrects  that 
the  top  of  such  a  colonnade  shall  lie  in 
the  same  plane  as  the  top  of  the  scae'ta, 
the  wall  b(4iind  the  stage,  for  the  reason 
that  the  voice  will  then  rise  with  ecjual 
]iower  till  it  reaches  the  highest  rows  of 
seats  and  the  roof.  If  the  roof  is  not  so 
high,  in  ])roi)ortion  as  it  is  lower  it  will 
check  the  voice  at  the  point  which  the 
s(nmd  first  reaches. 

The  scacfid,  or  wall  at  the  back  of  the 
stage,  was  divided  into  three  stories  (the 
l^)mans  were  i^rone  to  divide  high  wall 
surfaces  thus  into  tln*ee  stories).  The 
scacfta  was  here,  as  always,  richly  deco- 
rated  with    columns   and   statues.     The 


190 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  U.     RESTORATIUX  OF  THE  STAGE  OF  THE  THEATER  AT  ORANGE,  SOUTHERN*  FRANCE. 


theater,  it  must  be  remembered,  served 
many  purposes  quite  apart  from  the 
production  of  plays.  In  tlie  theater 
large  gatherings,  for  example,  might  be 
held  for  divers  reasons.  At  such  times 
the  richly  decorated  scaena  formed  an 
attractive  background. 

In  the  theater  at  Aspendus  we  can 
still  trace,  high  above  the  stage,  the  slop- 
ing line  which  marks  where  once  the  roof 
of  the  stage  ran  (fig.  11).  Beginning  at 
the  top  of  the  rectangular  construction 
which  forms  the  side  of  the  stage  (fig.  13) 
at  the  end  nearer  the  auditorium,  the  roof 
sloped  sharply  do%\Tiward  to  the  scaena. 
Such  a  roof  over  the  stage  w^as  prescribed 
for  acoustic  reasons.  So  too,  for  acoustic 
reasons,  it  w^as  ordained  that  the  floor  of 
the  stage  should  be  of  wood.  This  floor 
was  called  pidpitiim  or  pulpita,  a  word 
whence  'pulpit'  is  derived,  so  that  we  have, 
etymologically  at  least,  the  connection 
between  church  and  stage  desiderated 
by  so  manj'  worthy  persons. 

The  great  theater  at  Orange  (Roman 
Arausio)  in  the  southern  part  of  France 
(fig.  14)  w^as  so  well  preserved  that, 
twenty  years  or  so  ago,  large  portions  of 


the  seats  were  reconstructed,  the  stage 
was  remodeled,  and  performances  hy 
French  actors,  of  ancient  and  modern 
plays  both,  have  jjeen  given  in  this  thea- 
ter.^ The  wall  behind  the  stage  (scaena) 
is  w^ell  preserved.  Behind  that  are  the 
greenrooms,  and  the  like,  still  in  excellent 
condition.  The  Avail  (fig.  15)  behind  the 
greenrooms  is  335  feet  long,  and  120  feet 
high  (three-quarters  of  the  height  of  the 
exterior  wall  of  the  Coliseum) .  The  ruins 
of  this  splendid  Roman  theater  dominate 
the  town  today  as  completely  as  the  Ro- 
man power  once  dominated  the  territory 
in  which  the  theater  stands.  Also  in 
northern  Africa  at  Dougga  and  Timgad 
there  are  well-preserved  Roman  tlieaters 
(figs.  16,  17), 

The  student  of  the  Graeco-Roman  the- 
ater, however,  need  not  journey  abroad  to 
find  tangible  illustrations  of  the  ancient 
theater.  At  Berkeley,  California,  on  the 
grounds  of  the  University  of  California, 
stands  a  beautiful  Graeco-Roman  theater, 

^  For  an  account  of  such  performances  in 
1894,  see  an  article  entitled  "The  Comedie 
Fran^aise  at  Orange,"  in  The  Century  Magazine 
for  June,  1895. 


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ino 


ART  AX  I)  ARCHAEOLOGY 


IK;,  u.    i{i:srni{ATi«>.\  oi    iin:  si.\(;i:  or  Tin-:  THKAri:i{  a  r  <)Han(;i:,  sihthioijx  ihan'CI-: 


tlicatcr.  it  must  Ix'  ronionihorcHl,  served 
many  i)ur])()S(\s  ([uite  a])art  from  the 
production  of  ])lays.  In  the  theater 
hir^'e  ^■atherin<is,  for  exam])le,  mijiht  he 
lield  for  (hvers  reasons.  At  sueh  times 
the  richly  decorated  scacfid  formed  an 
attractive  l)ack<2;round. 

In  the  theater  at  As])en(his  we  can 
still  trace,  hij;h  above  the  sta*>;e,  tlie  sloj)- 
in^  line  which  marks  where  once  the  roof 
of  the  sta<i;e  ran  (fi<i.  11).  I^e<iinnin<2;  at 
the  top  of  the  rectan<>;ular  construction 
which  forms  the  side  of  the  sta<»;e  (fi<i;.  V.i) 
at  the  end  nearer  the  auditorium,  the  loof 
slojK'd  shar])ly  downward  to  the  xaicnd. 
Such  a  roof  over  the  sta<2;e  Avas  ])rescril)ed 
for  acoustic  reasons.  So  too,  for  acoustic 
reasons,  it  was  ordained  that  the  tloor  of 
\\\v  sta^e  should  he  of  wood.  This  floor 
was  called  pulpitufn  or  pidpita,  a  word 
whence 'pul])it' is  derived,  so  that  we  have, 
etymolojiically  at  least,  the  connection 
hetwe(*n  church  and  staj»;e  desiderated 
hy  so  many  worthy  ])ersons. 

The  ^reat  theater  at  Orange  (Roman 
Arausio)  in  tlie  southern  jiart  of  France 
(fi^".  14)  was  so  well  pn^served  that, 
twenty  years  or  so  a^o,  larj>e  ])ortions  of 


the  seats  were  reconstructed,  the  stajio 
was  remodeled,  and  ])erformances  hy 
French  actors,  of  ancient  and  modern 
])layshoth,  have  l)een  given  in  this  thea- 
ter.'' The  wall  heliind  the  stage  (safcna) 
is  well  ])reserved.  I^ehind  that  are  the 
greenrooms,  and  the  like,  still  in  excellent 
condition.  The  wall  (fig.  lo)  hehind  the 
greenrooms  is  335  feet  long,  and  120  feet 
high  (three-ciuarters  of  the  height  of  the 
exterior  wall  of  the  rolisevnn ) .  The  ruins 
of  this  spl(Mulid  Roman  theater  dominate 
the  town  todav  as  comi)letelv  as  the  Ro- 
man  j)ower  once  dominated  the  territory 
in  Avhich  the  theater  stands.  Also  in 
northern  Afi'ica  at  Oougga  and  Timgad 
th(M-(^  are  well-])reserve(l  Roman  tiieatei-s 
(figs.  10,  17), 

The  student  of  the  (iraeco-Roman  the- 
ater, however,  need  not  joiu'ney  ahroad  to 
find  tangible  illustrations  of  the  ancient 
theater.  At  Herkeley,  California,  on  the 
grounds  of  the  Cniversity  of  California, 
stands  a  beautiful  Oraeco-Roman  theater, 

'^  For  an  account  of  sucli  pcrforinanccs  in 
1S04.  M'c  an  article  entitled  "riie  ( 'oniedie 
I'raiH.-aise  at  (^)ranjie,"  in  llu  ('<  nhiri^  M(t(jnziiit 
for.Iune.  1S<).'). 


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192 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


193 


the  gift  of  Mr.  William  R.  Hearst  (fig.  18). 
It  is  built  against  a  hillside,  in  Greek 
fashion.  The  parodoi  too  are  Greek;  the 
orchestra  is  circular.  The  extreme  diam- 
eter of  the  stone  theater  proper  is  250  feet, 
but  two  tiers  of  wooden  seats  have  been 
constructed  beyond  (above)  the  stone 
portion.  There  are  two  praecinctiones: 
of  these  the  lower  is  8  feet  wide,  the  upper, 
between  the  top  of  the  stone  seats  and  the 


portion  of  the  seat  and  the  remainder  of 
the  seat.  The  ordinary  seating  capacity 
is  about  7,000;  by  crowding  and  calling  the 
aisles  into  use  this  may  be  increased  to 
8,500.  The  stage  (fig.  19)  is  150  feet  by 
28.  In  the  center  its  height  is  7  feet; 
hence  this  stage,  at  this  point,  is  too  high 
for  the  Roman  theater,  too  low  for  the 
Greek  theater,  as  that  is  described  by 
Vitruvius.     The  parodoi  are  not  level,  but 


production  of  plays.  Our  study  must 
include  the  stage,  the  scenery,  costumes, 
music,  the  actors,  and  the  audience. 

The  stage-buildings  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts:  (1)  the  stage  proper,  the 
'boards,'  called  pidpitum  or  pidpita; 
(2)  the  scaena  proper,  or  permanent  wall 
at  the  back  of  the  pulpitum;  (3)  the  post- 
scaenium,  or  portion  behind  the  scaena, 
containing    the    dressing-rooms    of    the 


of  the  stage.  Such  colonnades  were  at- 
tached to  the  Theater  of  Pompey  at  Rome. 
We  mav  remind  the  reader  of  Vitruvius's 
two  statements  concerning  the  pulpitum: 
first,  that  it  should  be  deeper  than  that  of 
the  Greek  theater,  because  in  the  Roman 
theater  all  the  performers  play  their  parts 
on  the  stage;  secondly,  that  it  should  not 
exceed  five  feet  in  height,  else  the  senators 
and  other  distinguished  personages  who 


FIG.  16.    ROMAN  THEATER  AT  DOUGGA.  NORTH  AFRICA. 


FIG.  17.    ROMAN  THEATER  AT  TIMGAD.  NORTH  AFRICA. 


wooden  addition,  7i  feet.  There  are  11 
gradus  between  the  orchestra  and  the 
lower  praednctio:  these  are  very  low,  so 
that  chairs  must  be  set  hero  for  spectators. 
Above,  between  the  tAvo  praecinctiones, 
are  19  gradus,  cut  by  11  aisles  into  10 
cunei  or  sections.  The  seats  are  prod- 
igally constructed,  that  is,  there  is  no 
undercutting  of  the  front  of  the  seat,  and 
no  difference  in  level  between  the  footrest 


in  the  form  of  inclined  planes  or  ram]:)s 
leading  down  into  the  orchestra.  To  sum 
up,  this  theater  is  for  the  most  part 
Greek;  in  its  seating  arrangements  (in  the 
orchestra)  it  is  in  part  Roman;  in  the 
stage,  it  is  neither  Greek  nor  Roman. 

Thus  far  we  have  dealt  with  the  Roman 
theater-structure  mainly  as  a  receptacle, 
so  to  say,  for  spectators.  We  turn 
now  to  consider  it  with  reference  to  the 


actors,  space  for  marshalling  the  pro- 
cessions for  which  the  Romans  had  such 
f  mdness  (compare  the  citation  from  Hor- 
ace, pages  145-147,  above),  and  the  like. 
V  itruvius  recommends  that  colonnades  be 
^constructed  behind  the  theater,  so  that, 
^\hen  sudden  showers  interrupt  plays, 
the  people  may  have  somewhere  to  retire 
from  the  theater,  and  that  there  may  be 
loom  for  the  preparation  of  all  the  outfit 


had  seats  in  the  orchestra  would  be  unable 
to  see  what  was  being  presented  on  the 
stage.  The  stage  of  the  Large  Theater  at 
Pompeii  is  a  little  more  than  three  feet  in 
height,  that  of  the  Odeum  of  Herodes 
Athens  at  Athens  about  four  and  a  half 
feet.  When  the  Dionysiac  Theater  at 
Athens  was  reconstructed  by  Phaedrus  in 
the  third  century  A.D.,  the  stage  was 
made  four  feet,  seven  inches  high.     The 


1<)2 


Airi'  AND  archaeoloc;y 


the  sift  of  Mr.  William  H.  Hearst  ( tiji".  \S). 
It  is  Iniilt  against  a  hillside,  in  Greek 
fasliion.  The  purodoi  too  are  (Ireek:  the 
orchestra  is  circular.  The  extreme  diam- 
eter of  the  stone  th(niter  ])r()])er  is250feet, 
but  two  tiers  of  wooden  sc^ats  have  been 
constructed  beyond  fabove)  the  stone 
portion.  There  are  two  pmvciudioncs: 
of  these  the  lower  is  8  feet  wide,  the  upper, 
between  the  top  of  the  stone  seats  and  the 


]iortion  of  the  seat  and  tlie  remainder  of 
the  seat.  The  ordhiary  seating  ca]xicity 
is  a])Out  7,000;  ])y  crowding  ami  calling  the 
aisles  into  use  this  may  ])e  increased  to 
8,500.  The  stage  (fig.  19)  is  150  feet  by 
28.  In  the  center  its  height  is  7  feet; 
hence  this  stage,  at  this  ])oint,  is  too  high 
for  the  Roman  theater,  too  low  for  the 
Greek  theater,  as  that  is  described  by 
Mtruvius.     The  parodni  an^  not  level,  but 


1 


THE  HOMAX  THEATER 


193 


I)roduction  of  plays.  Our  study  must 
include  the  stage,  the  scenery,  costumes, 
music,  the  actors,  and  the  audience. 

The  stage-l)uildings  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts:  (1)  the  stage  pro]ier,  the 
M)oards,'  called  pulpituni  or  j)idpit(i; 
(2)  the  scaena  proper,  or  ])ermanent  wall 
at  the  l>ack  of  the  pulpitum;  (3)  the  pos^t- 
scaeminn,  or  ])ortion  l)ehin(l  the  scaefid, 
containing    the    dressing-rooms    of    the 


of  the  stage.  Such  colonnades  were  at- 
tached tothe  Theaterof  Pompey  at  Rome. 
Wq  may  remind  the  reader  of  X'itruvius's 
two  statements  concerning  thv  pulpltum: 
first,  that  it  should  be  dee})er  than  that  of 
the  Greek  theater,  l)ecause  in  the  Roman 
theater  all  the  performers  play  thcMr  i)arts 
on  the  stage;  secondly,  that  it  should  not 
exceed  five  feet  in  height,  (*lse  the  senators 
and  other  distinguished  personages  who 


li 


ri(i.  111.     HOMAN  THKATKH  AT  DOldCA.  XOKTir  ATHICA. 


FIG.  17.     ROMAN  Tiri-ATKU   AT    ITMCAD.  XORTH  AFRICA. 


wooden  addition,  1\  feet.  There  are  11 
(irafhis  ])etween  the  orchestra  and  the 
lower  praecindio:  these  ar(^  very  low,  so 
that  chairs  must  be  set  here  for  s])ectators. 
Abov(\  betwe(Mi  the  two  pniecinctiones, 
are  19  gnidus,  cut  by  11  aisles  into  10 
cunci  or  sections.  The  seats  are  ])rod- 
igally  constructed,  that  is.  ther(^  is  no 
undercutting  of  the  front  of  the  scat,  and 
no  difference  in  level  between  the  footrest 


in  the  form  of  inclined  planes  or  iam])S 
lea(Ung  down  into  the  orchestra.  To  sum 
up,  this  theater  is  for  the  most  ])art 
Greek;  in  its  seating  arrangements  (in  the 
orchestra)  it  is  in  ])art  Roman;  in  the 
stage,  it  is  neither  Greek  nor  Roman. 

Thus  far  we  have  dealt  with  the  Roman 
theater-structure  mainly  as  a  receptacle, 
so  to  say,  for  spectators.  We  turn 
now  to  consider  it  with  ref(M'ence  to  the 


•'tors,    space    for    marshalling  the   pro- 

''ssions  for  wliich  the  Romans  had  such 

»n(hiess  (compare  the  citation  from  Hor- 

•e,  pages  145  147,  above),  and  the  like. 

•  itruviusreconunends  that  colonriades  be 

')ustructed  behind  the  theater,  so  that, 

V  hen    sudden    showers    interru])t    ])lays, 

he  ])eo])le  may  have  somewhere  to  retire 

li'oiii  the  theater,  and  that  there  may  be 

'"oin  for  the  i)rcparation  of  all  the  outfit 


had  seats  in  the  (orchestra  would  i)e  unable 
to  see  what  was  ])eing  ]>resent<Ml  on  the 
stage.  The  stage  of  the  Large  Theater  at 
Pompeii  is  a  little  more  than  three  feet  in 
height,  that  of  the  Odeum  of  Herodes 
Atticus  at  Athens  about  four  and  a  half 
feet.  When  the  Dionysiac  Theater  at 
Athens  was  reconstructed  by  Phae<lrus  in 
the  third  century  A.D.,  the  stage  was 
made  four  iiK't,  seven  inches  high.     The 


194 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


stage  was  usuallv  of  great  size.     That  of    Pliny  the  Elder  expresses  his  astonish- 

the  Large  Theater  at  Pompeii  measured    ment  that  such  splendor,  especially  the 

105  feet  by  20,  that  of  the  Odeum  of  Hero-    blocks    of    marble,    should    have    been 

desAtticus  120  by  24,  that  of  the  Theater    tolerated  in  a  city  which  took  it  amiss 

at  Orange  203  bv  50.     It  is  interesting  to    that  one  of  its  richest  citizens,  the  orator 

note  that  the  French,  for  the  perform-    Crassus,  adorned  the  atrium  of  his  house 

ances  in  the  Theater  at  Orange,  found  it    with  six  columns  of  Hj-mettan  marble, 

advisable  to  construct  a  stage  much  small-    only  12  feet  high.  .  ,     ,. 

er  than  that  of  the  ancient  theater.   Some        ^•itruvius   divides  scenery   into   three 

scholars  have  seen  in  the  great  breadth  of    classes:  tragic,  comic,  and  satyric.    Ac- 

the  Roman  stage  an  explanation,  at  least    cording  to  his  description,  the  prominent 

in  part,  of  the  running  scenes,  so  common    features  in  a  tragic  setting  were  columns 

in  Plautus,  that  is,  scenes  in  which  slaves    pediments,    statues,    and  other  signs  of 

are  described  as  running   in   hot  haste    regal  magnificence-in  a  word  a  palace 

across  the  stage,  and  vet  consuming  a    and  its  accessories   (or  a  temple).     In 

long  time  to  cover  that  space.  comedy  the  setting  represented  one  or 

Of  the  height  of  the  scaena  and  its    more    private    houses    with    projecting 

decoration  something  has  been  said  above    balconies  and  windows  overiooking  the 

(page  189),  in  the  account  of  the  Theater    street.     The  setting  of  a  satyric  drama, 

at    \spendus.    The  Theater  at  Orange    or  play  in  which  satyrs  and  the  like 

and  the  Small  Theater  at  Pompeii  carry    appeared,  comprised  trees,  grottoes,  moun- 

out   the   spirit   of   this   injunction.     At    tains,  and  "other  rustic  objects  dehneated 

first    the    scaena    was    made    of    rough,    in  landscape  style,     says  ^  itruvms. 

unpainted    boards.     However,   the    cus-        Inl7of the25extanttragediesof Sopho- 

tom  of  adorning  the  scaena  became  fixed    cles  and  Euripides  the  scene  is  laid  ,n 

lom  oi  ciaui  luug  pa  ace  or  a  temple.     In  these 

atanearlydateforinatemporarywooden     -nt^o^^    p^  ^J^^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

theater  erected  by  Aemihus  Scaurus  in  J^^^^  ^^            ^^.^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^,^  ^^  ^..^^^_ 

58  B.C.  the  scaena  was  divided  into  three  ^.^  ^^^^^^^^     ^^^^  ^^^^^  suchscenery 

stories,  the  lowest  of  which  u-as  adorned  ^^^^                         ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

with  slabs  of  marble;  the  middle  story  ,j,^,  theLe«a  of  the  Theater  at  Berkeley 

was  lined  with  mosaics  in  glass,  and  the  ^^^  .^  .^^^^  ^^^^^  admirably  as  proper 

topmost  story  was  built  f  glided  wood  ^^^  performances  of  the  Birds  of 

360  marble  columns  and  3,000  bronze  ^^j^^     j^^„^^  (^     jg^^  ^he  Eumenides  of 

statues    graced    this    ^a      Lanc.an  ^^3^h^.i^3  ^^^  the  Antigone  of  Sophocle. 

(Anaent   Rome   m   the   Ught   of  Recent  j          ^^    ^^^    ^             background 

Discoveries,  242)  says  the  columns  were  of  J^-^^^^^  .^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^  g^^^,.^  .^  j90, 

Lucullan  marble.     He  continues:  ^^^  ^^^^  performance  of  the  Agamemnon 

No  wonder  that  the  contractor  for  the  of  Aeschylus  (fig.  20)  met  all  the  require- 

maintenance  of  public  drains  should  have  ments   of    the  play.     This   background 

required   from    M.    Scaurus   a   security  consisted  in  the  main  of  a  straight  wall, 

against  any  possible  danger  of  the  sinking  g^Q^ned  with  simple  pilasters.     In  front 
of  the  streets  in  the  transportation  of  his  porch-like  struc- 

columns  and  b bcks  of  marble,  so  heavy  oi  ^"f  -'"s'f  """'  "         i^ 

were  they  t^^e  formed  by  four  columns  set  a  fe^\ 


z 
o 

-3 
< 
O 

o 

-n 

— H 

> 

>^ 

z 

p   . 

w  1 

■Jl  ^ 

^^ 

CG 

< 


2; 


o 


5^ 


O 

73 


Q 


O 

73 

Q 

03 


W 
H 

O 
Z 

a 
o 

73 

d 
t— t 


hU 


ART  AND  ARC  HAKOT.OOV 


stag;e  was  usually  of  great  siz(\     That  ol 
the  Large  Theater  at  Poni])eii  measured 
105  feet  l)y  20,  that  of  tlie  ( )(leuni  of  Hero- 
des  Atticus  120  by  24.  that  of  the  Theater 
at  Orange  203  hy  50.     It  is  interestmg  to 
note  that   tlu^   French,  for  the  perform- 
ances in  the  Tlieater  at  Orange,  found  it 
advisable  to  ronstruet  a  stag(»  much  small- 
er than  that  of  the  aneient  theater.    Some 
scholars  have  seen  in  the  great  breadth  of 
the  Roman  stage  an  ex])lanati(m,  at  least 
in  part,  of  the  running  scenes,  so  connncm 
in  Plautus,  that  is,  scenes  in  which  slaves 
are   described   as   running   in    hot  haste 
across  the  stage,   and   yet   consuming  a 
long  time  to  cover  that  space. 

Of   the   height    of   the   scaena   and   its 
decoration  something  has  been  said  above 
(page  189),  in  the  account  of  the  Theater 
at  Aspendus.     The   Theater  at   Orange 
and  the  Small  Theater  at  Pompeii  carry 
out    the    spirit    of    this    injunction.     At 
first    the    .'^caena    was    made    of    rough, 
unpainted    boards.     However,    the    cus- 
tom of  adorning  the  ,^caena  became  fixed 
at  an  early  date,  for  in  a  temporary  wooden 
theater  erected  l)y  Aemilius  Scaurus  in 
58  B.C.  the  scaena  was  divided  into  three 
stories,  the  lowest  of  which  was  adorned 
with  slabs  of  marble;  the  middle  story 
was  lined  with  mosaics  in  glass,  and  the 
topmost  story  was  built  of  gilded  wood. 
360  marble   columns   and   3,000   lironze 
statues    graced    this    scaena.      Lanciani 
(Ancient    Rome    in    the    Light    of   Recent 
Discover ie.^,  242)  says  the  columns  were  of 
Lucullan  marble.     He  continues: 


Xo  wonder  that  the  contractor  for  tlie 
maintenance  of  public  drains  should  have 
required  from  M.  Scaurus  a  security 
against  any  possible  danger  of  the  sinking 
of  the  streets  in  the  transportation  of  his 
columns  and  blocks  of  marble,  so  heavy 
were  thev. 


Pliny  the  l^lder  expresses  his  astonish- 
ment that  such  splendor,  especially  the 
blocks  of  marble,  should  have  been 
tolerated  in  a  city  which  took  it  amiss 
that  one  of  its  richest  citizens,  the  orator 
Crassus,  adorned  the  atrium  of  his  house 
with  six  columns  of  Hymettan  marble, 
only  12  feet  high. 

Vitruvius   divides   scenery   into   three 
classes:  tragic,  comic,  and  satyric.     Ac- 
cording to  his  description,  the  prominent 
features  in  a  tragic  setting  were  columns, 
pediments,    statues,    and  other   signs  of 
regal   magnificence— in   a   word  a  palace 
and   its   accessories    (or   a    temple).     In 
comedy  the  setting  re])resented  one  or 
more    private    houses    with    projecting 
balconies  and  windows  overlooking  the 
street.     The  setting  of  a  satyric  drama, 
or   play    in   which    satyrs   and   the    like 
ai)peared,  comprised  trees,  grottoes,  moun- 
tains, and  ''other  rustic  objects  delineated 
in  landscape  style,"  says  Vitruvius. 

In  1 7  of  the  25  extant  tragedies  of  So])ho- 
cles  and   Euripides   the  scene  is  laid  \v 
front  of  a  palace  or  a  temple.     In  these 
tragxnUes   the   general    character   of   thr 
scenery  recjuired  woidd  be  such  as  Vitru- 
vius describes.     How  easily  suchscener} 
was  su])])lied  may  be  seen  from  the  fac^ 
that  the  scaena  of  the  Theater  at  Berkele> 
has  in  itself  served  a(bniral)ly  as  proi)e ' 
setting  for  ])erformances  of  the  Birds  o 
Aristophanes  (fig.  18),  the  lumienides  o' 
Aeschylus,  and  the  Antigone  of  Sophode  - 
(fig.    19).     So    the    simi)le    backgroum' 
erected  in  the  Harvard  Stadium  in  190'» 
for  the  performance  of  the  Agamemnoi; 
of  Aeschylus  (fig.  20)  met  all  the  reciuire 
ments    of    the  play.     This    backgrouui 
consisted  in  the  main  of  a  straight  wall 
adorned  with  sim])le  pilasters.     In  fron 
of  the  single  door  was  a  porch-like  struc 
ture  formed  bv  four  columns  set  a  fev 


5 


< 

o 
>• 

ri 

> 

D     . 

o 

'.-    o 


OH 
^  < 


73 


U4 


1 


196 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


feet  from  the  door  and  carr^dng  a  pedi- 
mental  or  gable-like  structure.  So  also 
the  theater  at  Bradfield  College  in  Eng- 
land (figs.  21,  22)  was  well  adapted  to  a 
recent  performance  of  the  Alcestis.  At 
Rome,  it  must  be  remembered,  the  de- 
tails of  scenery,  costume,  and  the  like 
were  wholly  Greek.  It  will  be  convenient 
to  note  here  that  in  the  one  satyric 
drama  which  has  come  down  to  us  the 
scene  consists  of  a  country  region,  with 
the  cave  of  Polyphemus  in  the  center. 

In  Graeco-Roman  comedy  the  action,  in 
the  great  majority  of  the  plays,  took  place 
on  the  pubUc  street,  before  one  or  more 
private  houses.^     The  Captivi  of  Plautus 
requires  but  one  house;  the  Phormio  of 
Terence    calls    for    three.     In   the  Me- 
naechmi  of  Plautus,  which  was  acted  some 
years  ago,  in  the  original,  by  the  students 
of  Barnard  College,  two  houses  are  needed. 
In  the  Graeco-Roman  theater  all  the  events 
of  the  play  went  on  in  the  open;  interior 
scenes  were  never  represented.     In  the 
Antigone  of  Sophocles,  Antigone  calls  her 
sister   Ismene  out  of  the  palace,   that 
alone   Ismene  may   hear   the   decree   of 
Creon  with  respect  to  the  burial  of  their 
brothers.      The    real    reason    for  Anti- 
gone's act  is  that  the  poet  cannot  picture 
the  sisters  as  talking  w^ithin  the  palace. 
In  the  Mostellaria  of  Plautus  Philema- 
tium  completes  her  toilet  on  the  street; 
later  in  the  same  play  there  is  a  drinking- 
bout  on  the  street.     In  the  Miles  Glori- 
osusof  Plautus  (597,  609-610)  Palaestrio, 
Pleusicles,   and  Periplecomenus  hold  an 
important    secret     conference     on    the 
street.     At    right    angles    to    the    main 
street  a  lane,  known  as  an  angiportum, 

^  Throughout  the  remaining  pages  of  this 
paper  the  illustrations  will  be  taken  mainly 
from  Roman  comedy,  partly  because  of  limita- 
tions of  space,  partly  because  the  Romans  so 
strongly  preferred  comedy  to  tragedy. 


sometimes,  if  not  always,  ran  back  be- 
tween the  houses.     By  this  angiportum 
access  was  had  to  the  back  or  garden  part 
of  the  houses,  or  to  the  country  (the  nis 
that    figures    so    largely    in    the  Roman 
comedies);  by  the  angiportum,  again,  an 
actor  might  leave  the  stage  and  return 
to  it  by  a  roundabout  route,  as  Davus 
does    so    cleverly  in   Terence,    Andria, 
732-746.     The  angiportum,   finally,   was 
a  favorite  place  for  eavesdroppers.     One 
and  the  same  scene  served  for  all  towns 
ahke.     In   the   Menaechmi   of   Plautus, 
72-73,  the  prologist   says,  ''This  city  is 
for  the  present   E])idamnus,  while   this 
play  is  on:  when  another  play  shall  be 
acted,  it  will  become  another  town."     In 
the  prologue  of  the  Truculentus  of  Plau- 
tus the  text  is  sadly  corrupt :  yet  it  is  clear 
that  the  speaker  of  the  prologue  is  saving 
that  the  stage  represents  Athens  "so  long 
as  ^ye  are  acting  this  pla}-."    This  implies, 
it  would  seem,  that  the  scenic  resources 
of  the  Roman  theater  were  after  all  not 
verv'  elaborate  or  at  least  that  the  scenic 
artists  were  not  very  precise  in  delinea- 
tion of  landscapes.     Compare,  too,  what 
is  said  in  the  next  paragraph  about  change 
of  scenery. 

The  scenery  consisted  of  painted  boards. 
If  there  were  three  houses  in  the  scene, 
the  house-door  was  set  in  each  case 
opposite  the  door  in  the  scaena  (see  above, 
page  187).  If  only  one  or  two  houses 
were  required,  we  may  suppose  that  one 
or  two  doors  in  the  scaena  were  kept 
closed.  Changes  of  scenery  were  infre- 
quent. No  extant  Roman  play  requires 
such  change.  In  only  one  extant  Greek 
tragedy,  the  Ajax  of  Sophocles,  is  a  change 
of  scenery  necessar>^,  from  a  modern 
point  of  view.  Part  of  the  action  is  laid 
before  the  tent  of  Ajax  in  the  midst  of  the 
Greek  host  before  Troy,  part  (the  suicide 
of  Ajax)   on  a  lonely  stretch    of    shore. 


o 

02 


o 


H 

< 
< 


-/: 


y. 


H 
Z 


y. 


a 

a 
S 
H 

a 
a 

o 


a 
< 

CO 


O 

i-H 


196 


AKT  AND  ARCHAK()L()(;Y 


feet  from  the  door  and  carrying;-  a  pedi- 
mental  or  t2;al)le-like  structure.  So  also 
the  theat(n-  at  I^radfield  Colle^:e  in  En*i;- 
hmd  (fes.  21.  22)  was  well  adapt (m1  to  a 
recent  ])(M"forniance  of  the  Alcestis.  At 
Rome,  it  must  be  renienibered,  the  de- 
tails of  scenery,  costume,  and  the  like 
were  wholly  Creek.  It  will  be  convenient 
to  note  here  that  in  the  one  satyric 
drama  which  has  come  down  to  us  the 
scene  consists  of  a  country  rejiion,  with 
tlie  cave  of  Poly])hemus  in  the  center. 

Indraeco-Koman  comedy  the  action,  in 
tlie  j>;reat  majority  oF  the  plays,  took  ]:)lace 
on  the  jniblic  street,  before  one  or  more 
private  houses."     The  (\i])tivi  ofPlautus 
re(iuires  but  one  house;  the  l^hormio  of 
Terence    calls    for    three.     In    the  Me- 
naechmi  of  Plautus,  which  was  acted  some 
years  n^o,  in  the  original,  by  the  students 
of  I^arnard  College,  two  houses  are  needed. 
In  the  Graeco-Roman  theater  all  the  events 
of  the  ])lay  went  on  in  the  open;  interior 
scenes  were  never  re])resent(Ml.     In   the 
Antigone  of  So]:)hocles,  Antigone  calls  her 
sister   Ismene   out   of    the   palace,    that 
alotie    Ismene    may    hear    the    decree    of 
Creon  with  respect  to  the  ])urial  of  their 
brothers.      The    real     reason    for   Anti- 
gone's act  is  that  the  ])oet  cannot  ])icture 
the  sisters  as  talking  Avithin  the  ])alace. 
In  the   Mostellaria  of   Plautus  Philema- 
tium  c()m])letes  her  toilet  on  the  street; 
later  in  the  same  ])lay  there  is  a  drinking- 
bout  on  the  street.     In  the  Miles  Clori- 
osusof  Plautus  (597,  t)09-610)  Palaestrio, 
Pleusicles.    and   Peri])lecomenus  hold  an 
im])ortant     secret     conference     on     the 
street.     At    right    angles    to    the    main 
street  a  lane,  known  as  an  angiportum, 

^  Througliout  the  remaining  pa^es  of  this 
paper  the  ilhistrations  will  be  taken  mainly 
from  Koman  comedy,  partly  because  of  limita- 
tions of  space,  partly  because  the  Romans  so 
stronf!;ly  preferred  comedy  to  tragedy. 


sometimes,  if  not    always,  ran   ]:>ack   l)e- 
tween  the  houses,     l^y  this  amii portion 
access  was  had  to  the  back  or  garden  part 
of  the  houses,  or  to  the  country  (the  r?/x 
that    figures    so    largely    in    the  Roman 
comedies);  by  the  (nigiportutN,  again,  an 
actor  might  leave  the  stage  and  return 
to  it  bv  a  roundal^out  route,  as  Davus 
does    so    cleverly   in    Terence,    Andria, 
732-740.     The  anqiportutn,    finally,    was 
a  favorite  jilace  for  eavesdro])]x^rs.     Cne 
and  the  same  scene  served  for  all  towns 
ahke.     In   the   ]\Ienaeclinii   of   Plautus, 
72-73,  the  prologist    sa^'s,  ''This  city  is 
for   the   present   E])idamnus,  while    this 
play  is  on;   when  another  i)lay  shall  be 
acted,  it  will  beconn^  another  town.''     In 
the  prologue  of  the  Truculentus  of  Plau- 
tus the  text  is  sadly  corru])t ;  yet  it  is  clear 
that  the  sjx^akcr  of  the  ])rologuc  is  saying 
that  the  stage  represents  Athens  "so  long 
as  Ave  are  acting  this  ])lay."    This  im])lies. 
it  would  s(H'm,  that  the  scenic  resources 
of  the  Koman  theater  were  afttn*  all  not 
verv  elaborate  or  at  least  that  tlu*  scenic 
artists  were  not  very  precise  in  delinea- 
tion of  landscapes.     Compare,  too,  what 
is  said  in  the  next  i)aragra])h  about  changt^ 
of  scenerv\ 

The  scenery  consisted  of  painted  boards. 
If  there  were  three  houses  in  the  scene, 
the  house-door  was  set  in  each  case 
opposite  the  door  in  the  satcna  (see  above, 
page  1S7).  If  only  one  or  two  houses 
were  reciuired,  wi>  may  suppose  that  one 
or  two  doors  in  the  scactta  were  kept 
closed.  Changes  of  scenery  were  infre- 
(pient.  No  extant  Homan  ])lay  requires 
such  change.  In  only  one  extant  Creek 
tragedy,  the  Ajax  of  So])hocles,  is  a  change 
of  scenerv  necessary,  from  a  modern 
l^oint  of  view.  Part  of  the  action  is  laid 
before  the  tent  of  Ajax  in  the  midst  of  the 
Creek  host  before  Troy,  ])art  (tlie  suicide 
of  Ajax)   on  a  lonely  stretch    of    shore. 


A 


X 


'J 
x; 


'^ 


a 
a 


r  ^ 

r"  t— I 

-  •«  1 

/.  o 

a  y- 

V.  2 

'  -"i 

y.  '^ 


!3  cq 

-^  y. 

^  o 

z  o 

I— « 

'-  y 

~  < 

u 
y 


a 
-.1 


a 


m 


O 


198 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


199 


Yet,  when  this  play  was  produced  in  New 
York  City  some  years  ago  by  resident 
Greeks,  no  attempt  was  made  to  change 
the    scene.     Ajax    slew    himself    in    one 
corner  of  the  extremely  small  stage,  a 
short  distance  only  from  the  place  where 
all  the  preceding  action  of  the  play  had 
gone  on.     The    audience,    however,   felt 
no    difficulty.     The    unfamiliarity  of    a 
modern  audience  with  Greek  and  Latin  of 
course  forces  the  audience  to  strain  its 
attention  on  what  is  actually  happening 
on  the  stage,   and  leaves  it  little   or  no 
time  for  criticism  of  such  matters  as  the 
failure  to  change  the  setting  in  the  Ajax. 
So  far  as  I  know,  there  were  no  com- 
plaints when,  at  the  performance  of  the 
Phormio  at  Harvard  in  1894  there  was 
no  real  angiporturn,   though  one  is  de- 
manded by  the  play;  the  painter,  by  a 
skilful  use  of  perspective,   had   created 
the  illusion  of  such  an  angiportum,  a  copy 
of  the  Street  of  the  Hanging  Balcony  at 
Pompeii.    The  eavesdropper  merely  stood 
before  this  painted  street :  yet  no  one,  so 
far  as  I  know,  complained.     The  ancient 
audience,  on  the  other  hand,  demanded 
far  less  in   the  way  of  illusion  than  we 
moderns  have  learned  to  expect;  a  true 
comparison,  in  this  regard,  lies  between 
such  an  audience  and   the  audience  of 
Shakespeare's  time,  not  between  us  and 
the  ancient  Greek  or  Roman  audience. 

That  changes  of  scenery  did  occur, 
however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Vi- 
truvius  describes  the  devices  used  to 
effect  such  change.  The  painted  boards 
in  front  of  the  scaena  were  so  arranged 
that  they  might  be  drawn  asunder  and 
shoved  out  of  the  way.  Such  scenery  was 
called  scaena  dudilis,  "sl  drawable  scene," 
''movable  scenery."  When  several  plays, 
laid  in  different  places,  were  to  be  given 
in  succession  on  one  day,  it  would  be  a 
simple  matter  to  set  them  all  before  the 


performances  of  the  day  began,  and  then, 
at  the  proper  moment,  to  withdraw  the 
front  scene  and  display  the  scene  behind, 
previously  all  set  up.     On  the  sides  of  the 
stage,  connected  in  some  way  with  the 
scenery  at  the  back,  were  arrangements 
called   by  the  Greeks  TveplaKjoi,  by  the 
Romans     scaenae    versiles,     ''revolvers." 
These  were  large  triangular  prisms  re- 
volving on  a  socket  or  base,  after  the 
fashion  of  a  modern  revolving  })Ookcase. 
Upon  the  three  faces  of  the  prism  were 
painted  different  pictures,  arranged,  how- 
ever, so  that  the  particular  face  which 
for  the  moment  was  turned  toward  the 
spectators    matched     the     back     scene. 
To   both   kinds   of   scaenae   or   scenery 
Vergil  alludes,  in  Georgics  3.24,  the  pas- 
sage referred  to  above  (page  145).     If  a 
partial  change  of  scene  was  desired,  it 
might  be  effected  by  turning  the  prisms; 
a   complete   change   could  be  made   by 
simultaneously  turning  the  prisms  and 
removing   the   back   scene.     Before    the 
play  began  the  scenery  was  hidden  by  a 
curtain;  as  set  forth  above  (page  145),  this 
was  lowered  when  the  play  began,  raised 
when  the  play  was  over. 

There  were  arrangements  also  by  which 
personages— e.g.,  gods— might  appear  in 
mid-air,  or  might  come  up  from  the  nether 
world.  The  arrival  of  gods  was  accom- 
panied by  stage-thunder;  a  striking  in- 
stance is  to  be  found  in  the  Amphitruo  of 
Plautus,  1053  ff. 

From  various  passages  in  the  plays 
of  Plautus  and  Terence  and  from  an- 
cient vases  we  get  hints  of  the  costume 
and  make-up  of  actors.  Professional  cos- 
tumers,  known  as  choregi  or  choragi, 
supplied  everything  needed  for  the  equip- 
ment of  actors.  The  senex  or  old  man 
is  regularly  white-haired;  one  is  described 
as  knock-kneed,  large -paunched,  fat- 
cheeked,    short,    with    black    eyes,    and 


long  jaws,  and  rather  flat-footed;  another 
is  white-haired  and  white-bearded;  most, 
if  not  all,  old  men  in  the  plays  carried  a 
staff  or  cane,  with  a  crook  handle.  Philoc- 
rates,  a  young  man  in  the  Captivi  of 
Plautus,  is  thin-faced,  sharp-nosed,  pale, 
black-eyed,  with  hair  in  curls  and  ringlets. 
The  young  men  regularly  had  dark  hair, 


setting  forth  from  home  to  meet  a  slave 
from  another  household,  and  fearing  that 
this  other  may  pass  him  on  the  way, 
calls  to  those  within  his  house,  "If 
anv  red-head  comes  lookihg  for  me 
.  .  .  ."  The  other,  who  has  just 
arrived,  overhears  him  and  cries, "There, 
there,  that  will  do :  he's  here!"     Red  hair, 


FIG.  20.    PERFORMAXCEOF  AESCHYLUS'  AGAMEMNON  IN  THE  HARVARD  STADIUM 

AT  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 


and  plenty  of  it.  In  the  Pseudolus  of 
Plautus  the  slave  Pseudolus  is  red-headed, 
with  a  paunch,  thick-ankled,  swarthy, 
large-headed,  sharp-eyed,  red-faced,  and 
with  huge  feet.  The  huge  feet  are,  how- 
ever, an  abnormal  feature,  for  by  them, 
rather  than  by  the  rest  of  the  description, 
Pseudolus  is  instantly  identified.  In  the 
Phormio    of    Terence    the    slave    Geta, 


then,  belonged  regularly  to  the  slave. 
In  the  Miles  Gloriosus  of  Plautus  arrange- 
ments are  making  whereby  someone  is 
presently  to  masquerade  as  a  sailor  or 
skipper.  Here  are  the  orders  covering 
the  plan: 

Come  to  us  garbed  as  a  skipper.  Wear 
a  sea-hued  broadbrim,  and  a  sea-hued 
cloak.     Have  this  cloak  fastened  on  your 


198 


ART  AND  ARC'HAKOLOOY 


Yet,  wlion  this  play  Avas  ])r()(luc('(l  in  New 
York  City  some  years  ago  l)y  resident 
Greeks,  no  att(^ni])t  was  made  to  change 
the    scene.     Ajax    slew    himseU'    in    one 
corner  of  the  extremely  small  stage,  a 
short  distance  only  from  the  ])lace  where 
all  the  preceding  action  of  the  play  had 
o-one  on.     The    andience,    however,    felt 
no    (Ufhculty.     The    unfamiliarity   of    a 
modern  au(Uence  with  ( Ireek  and  Latin  of 
conrse  forces  the  audience  to  strain  its 
attention  on  what  is  actually  happening 
on  the  stage,   and  leaves  it  little   or  no 
time  for  criticism  of  such  matters  as  the 
failure  to  change  the  setting  in  the  Ajax. 
80  far  as   I   know,   there  werc^  no  com- 
plaints when,  at  the  ])erformance  of  the 
Phormio  at  Harvard  in   1894  there  was 
no   real   angiporhun,    though   one   is  de- 
manded l)v  the  plav;   the  ]minter,  by  a 
tskilful   use   of   pers])ective,    had   created 
the  illusion  of  such  an  (nujiportiifn,  a  copy 
of  the  Street  of  the  Hanging  Balcony  at 
Poni])eii.    The  eavesdropper  merely  stood 
before  this  ])ainted  stnM^t :  yet  no  one,  so 
far  as  I  know,  complained.     The  ancient 
audience,  on  the  other  hand,  demanded 
far  less  in    the  way  of  illusion  than  we 
moderns  have  learned  to  ex]M'ct ;  a  true 
comparison,  in  this  regard,  lies  between 
such  an  audience  and    the  aucUence  of 
Shakespeare's  time,  not   between  us  and 
the  ancient  Ghm^v  or  Roman  audience. 

That  changes  of  scenery  did  occur, 
however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  \'\- 
truvius  describes  the  devices  used  to 
effect  such  change.  The  i)ainted  boards 
in  front  of  the  scacna  were  so  arranged 
that  they  might  be  dra\ni  asunder  and 
shoved  out  of  the  way.  Suc*h  scenery  was 
called  scaena  ductilis,  ''a  drawable  scene/' 
''movable  scenery."  When  several  plays, 
laid  in  different  places,  were  to  be  given 
in  succession  on  one  day,  it  would  be  a 
simple  matter  to  set  tln^ni  all  before  the 


])erformances  of  the  day  began,  and  then, 
at  the  ])ro]K'r  moment,  to  withdraw  the 
frcmt  scene  and  display  the  scene  behind, 
previously  all  set  up.     On  the  sides  of  the 
stag(\  ccmnected  in  some  way  with  the 
scenery  at   the  back,  were  arrangements 
called    bv    the    (InH'ks    TreptaK-rot.   by    the 
Romans     saienae    versilc.^,     ''revolvers.'' 
These   were   large   triangular   ])risms   re- 
volving on  a   socket  or  base,   after  the 
fashion  of  a  modern  revolving  bookcase. 
Tpon  the  three  faces  of  the  prism  were 
painted  different  ])ictures,  arranged,  how- 
ever, so  that  the  ])articular  face  which 
for  the  moment  was  turned  toward  the 
spectators     matched     the     back     scene. 
To    both    kinds    of    scaenae    or    scenery 
Vergil  alludes,  in  Georgics  3.24,  the  ])as- 
sag(^  r(^f(M-red  to  above  (page  14o).     If  a 
])artial  change  of  scene  was  desired,   it 
might  be  effected  by  turning  the  prisms; 
a    c()mi)lete    change    could    be   made    by 
snnultaneously   tm-ning   tlu^   prisms  and 
removing   the    back    scene.     Before    the 
])lay  began  the  scenery  was  hidden  by  a 
curtain ;  as  set  forth  above  (page  145),  this 
was  lowennl  Avhen  the  play  began,  raised 
when  the  play  was  over. 

There  were  arrangements  also  by  which 
jiersonages— e.g.,  gods— might  appear  in 
mid-air,  or  might  come  u])  from  the  nether 
world.  The  arrival  of  gods  was  accom- 
panied l)y  stage-thvmder;  a  striking  in- 
stance is  to  be  found  in  the  Amphitruo  of 
Plautus,   1053  ff. 

From  various  passages  in  the  ])lays 
of  Plautus  and  Terence  and  from  an- 
ci(nit  vases  we  get  hints  of  the  costume 
and  make-up  of  actors.  Professional  cos- 
tumers,  known  as  choregi  or  choragi, 
sup])lied  everything  needed  for  the  equip- 
ment of  actors.  The  >ienex  or  old  man 
is  regularly  white-haired;  one  is  described 
as  knock-kneed,  large -paunched,  fat- 
cheeked,    short,    with    black    eyes,    and 


THE  RO^IAX  THEATER 


199 


long  jaws,  and  rather  flat-footed:  another 
i<  white-haired  and  white-beardcMl:  most, 
if  not  all,  old  men  in  the  ])lays  carried  a 
staff  or  cane,  with  a  crook  handle.  Philoc- 
rates,  a  young  man  in  the  Captivi  of 
Plautus,  is  thin-faciul,  sharp-nosed.  ])ale, 
black-eved,with  hair  in  curls  and  ringlets. 
The  young  men  regularly  had  dark  hair. 


setting  forth  from  home  to  meet  a  slave 
from  another  household,  and  fearing  that 
this  other  may  pass  him  on  the  way, 
calls  to  those  within  his  house,  "If 
any  red-head  comes  looking  for  me 
.  .  .  ."  The  other,  who  has  just 
arrived,  overhears  him  and  cries, ''There, 
there,  that  will  do:   he's  Iktc!"      Red  hair. 


1-1(1.  20.    PERFORMANCHOF  AHSCHYLUS'  AGAMEMN'OX  IX  TUH  HARVARD  STADIUM 

AT  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 


and  i)lenty  of  it.  In  the  Pseudolus  of 
Plautus  the  slave  Pseudolus  is  red-headed, 
with  a  paunch,  thick-ankled,  swarthy, 
large-headed,  shar])-eyed,  red-faced,  and 
with  huge  feet.  The  huge  feet  are,  how- 
ever, an  abnormal  feature,  for  by  them, 
rather  than  by  the  rest  of  the  description, 
Pseudolus  is  instantly  identified.  In  the 
Phormio    of    Terence    the    slave    Geta, 


then,  l)elonged  regularly  to  the  slave. 
In  the  Miles  Gloriosus  of  Plautus  arrange- 
ments are  making  whereby  someone  is 
presently  to  masquerade  as  a  sailor  or 
ski])p(T.  Here  are  the  orders  covering 
the  i)lan: 

Gome  to  us  garbed  as  a  skipper.  Wear 
a  sea-hued  broadbrim,  and  a  sea-hued 
cloak.     Have  this  cloak  fastened  on  your 


200 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  RO^^IAX  THEATER 


201 


shoulder,  so  as  to  leave  the  arm  bare. 
Pretend  to  be  a  sailor.  You  can  get  your 
make-up  at  the  iiouse  of  our  old  friend 
here:  he  has  fishermen  slaves. 

The  traveller  coming  from  foreign  parts 
wore  a  petasus,  or  broadbrimmed  hat; 
sometimes  this  hung  dowTi  his  back.  In 
the  Trinummus  of  Plautus  the  trickster 
wears  an  extraordinarily  wide  petasus. 
Charmides,  who  is  watching  him,  cries, 
^'By  Jove,  yon  fellow  is  of  the  mushroom 
brood :  he  hides  everv  inch  of  him  with 
his  head."  A  character  common  in  the 
plays  is  the  iniles  or  miles  gloriosus,  the 
braggart  captain  who  boasts  forever  of 
his  (imaginar^O  exploits  as  soldier.  He 
wears  a  chlamys  (a  kind  of  Greek  cloak), 
a  petasus,  and  a  sword. 

Most  of  the  plays  are  laid  in  Athens. 
A  non-Athenian  costume  is  recognizable 
at  sight.  In  the  Poenulus  of  Plautus, 
Hanno,  a  Carthaginian,  appears  (this 
play  is  not  laid  at  Athens,  but  at  Cah^don 
in  Aetolia).  His  costume  is  recognized 
at  once  as  Punic  by  Alilphio,  the  slave, 
and  his  master  Agorastocles.  Hanno 
evidently  wears  no  palliurn,  or  cloak;  his 
long  tunic  has  long  hanging  sleeves.  One 
of  the  characters  says  Hanno  is  garbed  as 
a  woman.  In  a  word,  the  comments  on 
Hanno's  costume  are  such  as,  in  a  certain 
type  of  modern  comedy  or  farce,  we  should 
hear  on  the  costume  of  a  Chinaman. 

In  the  later  davs  of  the  Roman  theater 
the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the 
actor's  make-up  was  the  persona,  or  mask, 
fashioned  of  terra-cotta.  In  the  best 
days  of  the  Roman  drama,  however,  the 
days  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  masks  were 
not  used.  Grease  paints,  wigs,  etc.,  then 
sufficed.  The  masks,  when  adopted, 
about  115  B.C.,  were  the  conventional 
masks  of  the  Greek  stage.  For  each 
important  personage  in  tragedy  a  mask 
was  evolved;  it  is  said  that  actors  studied 


the  lines  of  the  traditional  mask  as  closely 
as  they  did  the  Hues  of  the  play  itself. 
For  comedy,  44  tyjies  of  mask  were 
developed,  9  for  old  men,  11  for  young 
men,  7  for  slaves,  3  for  old  women,  and 
14  for  young  women.  As  an  actor  came 
on  the  stage  the  audience  could  tell  at 
once,  by  costume  and  mask,  especially  the 
latter,  what  role  he  was  to  play.  All 
this,  grotesque  as  it  may  seem  at  first  to 
us,  was,  in  the  absence  of  programmes, 
helpful  to  the  ancient  spectator. 

Some  details  concerning  masks  may  be 
given.  Miserly  old  men  had  close-clipped 
hair;  soldiers  wore  huge  manes.  A  dark, 
sunburned  complexion  was  sign  of  rugged 
health,  and  so  was  given  to  soldiers  and 
countrv  vouth.  A  white  complexion 
showed  effeminacy;  a  pallid  (i.e.  sallow 
or  yellow)  complexion  gave  evidence  of 
ill  health  or  showed  that  the  wearer  was 
suffering  from  the  ravages  of  love.  The 
eyebrows  were  strongly  marked  and  char- 
acteristic. When  (lraA\n  up  they  denoted 
pride,  impudence,  or  wrath.  The  old 
father,  at  one  time  ablaze  with  wrath,  at 
another  brimful  of  affection,  had  one 
eyebrow  drawn  u]),  to  denote  wrath,  the 
other  in  its  natural  position;  and  he  kept 
that  side  of  his  face  to  the  spectators 
which  had  the  eyebrow  in  keeping  with 
his  temper  of  the  moment.  Old  men  and 
parasites  had  hook  noses;  country  youths 
had  snul)  noses. 

In  the  days  of  Plautus  and  Terence 
plays  were  not  divided  into  acts;  they 
were  acted  through  without  ])ause.  Once 
only  in  our  extant  plays  is  there  reference 
to  a  break  in  the  acting  made  by  music. 
In  Pseudolus  573-573  A,  at  the  close  of 
what  we  shall  call  an  act,  Pseudolus  savs: 
'T  will  go  forth;  meanwhile  the  flute- 
player  will  l)e  here  and  will  minister  to 
your  pleasure."  Pseudolus  appears  pres- 
ently at  574,  to  open  the  very  next  scene. 


For  music  in  Roman  plays  we  have, 
however,  quite  apart  from  this  single 
reference  in  the  extant  plays,  plenty  of 
evidence.  The  evidence  finds  its  most 
interesting  form  in  the  representations 
which  have  come  do^vn  to  us,  from  Roman 
davs,  of  actual  scenes  in  comedies.  These 
show  the  musician  (regularly  there  is  but 
one  musician,  a  woman)  playing  the  double 
tibiae,  an  instrument  resembling  the  flute. 
The  flute-player  appeared  on  the  stage 
Anth  the  actors.  When  the  Phormio  of 
Terence  was  produced  at  Harvard  in 
1894,  sometimes  one,  sometimes  two 
flute-players  appeared  on  the  stage  with 
the  actors.  At  the  performance  of  the 
Agamemnon  of  Aeschylus  at  Harvard  in 
1906  (fig.  20)  one  flute-player  appeared 
with  the  chorus,  in  the  orchestra.  In 
neither  case,  however,  did  the  visible 
musicians  play  a  note:  the  music  was 
sui)i^lied  by  hidden  performers.  The 
musical  accompaniment  for  Roman  plays 
was  the  work  of  slaves;  the  making  of 
music,  as  author  or  player,  was  beneath 
the  dignity  of  a  true  Roman. 

A  few  words  nmst  be  said  about  the 
actors.  Among  the  Romans  the  actor  or 
participant  in  any  spectacle  on  the  stage, 
especially  if  he  appeared  for  money,  lost 
all  civil  rights.  Actors,  then,  were  ineli- 
f^ible  to  hold  office.  We  may  recall  the  in- 
structive storv  told  of  Decimus  Laberius, 
the  writer  of  mimes,  compelled  by  Julius 
Caesar  to  act  in  one  of  his  ovm  productions. 
When  Laberius  came  doA\Ti  from  the 
stage,  Caesar  gave  to  him  a  gold  ring  and 
100,000  sesterces.  The  400,000  sesterces 
A'ere  the  property  qualification  necessary 
to  the  status  of  eques;  the  gold  ring  was 
worn  by  the  eques  as  outward  evidence  of 
his  status.  By  these  gifts,  then,  Caesar 
was  restoring  to  Laberius  the  equestrian 
status  he  had  lost  by  appearing  as  actor. 
With  the  son  of  an  actor  or  actress  not 


even  the  great-granddaughter  of  a  sena- 
tor, in  the  male  line,  could  contract  a 
lawful  marriage.  Originally  magistrates 
had  the  right  to  scourge  actors  whenever 
and  wherever  they  saw  fit,  but  Augustus 
limited  this  right  to  the  time  of  the  ludi 
and  to  the  theater  itself.  Yet  Augustus 
exercised  a  strict  supervision  over  actors; 
he  caused  one  actor  to  be  beaten  \\ith  rods 
through  the  three  theaters,  and  another, 
on  complaint  of  a  praetor,  to  be  scourged 
in  the  atrimn  of  his  own  house,  the  general 
l)ublic  being  admitted  to  the  spectacle. 
Naturally,  in  view  of  what  has  been  said, 
actors  were  in  general  men  of  inferior 
station,  slaves,  or  freedmen.  Such  free- 
born  ]:)ersons  as  ap])eared  on  the  stage 
were  not  Romans,  but  foreigners — Greeks, 
Asiatics,  or  Egyptians.  Still,  distin- 
guished actors  sometimes  attained  a 
high  place  in  pul)lic  esteem,  even  though 
their  political  disabilities  were  not  re- 
moved. In  corned}'  Q.  Roscius  Gallus, 
and  in  tragedy  Claudius  Aesopus,  con- 
temj^oraries  of  Cicero,  achieved  enviable 
reputations  and  amassed  great  fortunes. 
In  his  speech  Pro  Archia  Cicero  says: 

Who  was  not  deeply  moved  lately 
when  he  heard  of  the  death  of  Roscius? 
So  perfect  was  his  art,  so  charming  his 
grace,  that  one  felt  he  should  never  have 
ciied.  By  the  mere  movements  of  his 
body  he  had  won  from  us  strong  affection. 

In  Terence's  time  L.  Ambivius  Turpio 
had  been  famous. 

The  famous  "rule  of  three  actors," 
which  scholr.rs  long  insisted  had  governed 
the  distribution  of  roles  in  Greek  i)lays, 
so  that  all  the  roles  of  a  Greek  i)lay,  how- 
ever numerous,  were  divided,  the}'  held, 
among  three  actors  and  only  three,  had  no 
meaning  for  the  Roman  theater.^     It  has 

8  Its  applicability  to  the  Greek  theater, 
at  least  that  of  the  best  days,  has  recently  been 
vijtorously  challenged  by  an  American  scholar. 


202 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


THE  ROMAN  THEATER 


203 


been  held  that  four  i)lays  of  Phuitus  re- 
quire at  least  four  actors;  ten  plays  require 
five  actors;  two  require  six  actors.  So 
three  plays  of  Terence  require  six  actors. 
One  last  ]:)oint  may  be  noted  here. 
In  all  kinds  of  Roman  dramatic  perform- 
ances, except  the  mime  and  the  pan- 
tomime, all  the  roles  were  taken  by  men. 
The  Romans  themselves  vio;orously  assail 


temporary  evidence  in  the  second  pro- 
logue to  Terence's  Hecyra; 

And  now  for  my  sake  give  ear  to  what  I 
am  about  to  ask.  I  am  bringing  before 
you  again  the  Hecyra,  which  I  have  never 
been  suffered  to  act  in  peace  and  quiet. 
When  first  I  tried  to  act  this  play,  I  had 
no  chance,  for  the  excitement  al)out  some 
prize-fighters,  the  noise  of  parties  forming 
for  that  show,  the  confusion  and  the  shrieks 


FIG.  21.  THE  GREEK  THEATER  OF  BRADFIELD  COLLEGE,  BERKSHIRE,  ENGLAND. 


the    immorality    of   the   mime   and    the 
pantomime. 

It  remains  to  consider  the  audience. 
Admission  to  theatrical  performances  was 
free  to  all  classes  of  the  community, 
except  at  first  to  slaves  and  foreigners. 
Later,  slaves,  too  were  admitted,  and  of 
course  foreigners;  slaves  in  attendance  on 
their  masters  cannot  long  have  been 
excluded.  For  the  presence  of  women  in 
the  theater  as  early  as  the  time  of  Terence 
(that  is,  before  160  B.C.),  we  have  con- 


of  the  women  drove  me  off  before  I  had 
half  finished.  I  tried  it  again.  You 
liked  the  first  part,  when  suddenly  a  report 
ran  through  the  theater  that  a  gladiatorial 
exhibition  was  to  be  given  that  day. 
Off  flew  the  spectators,  shouting,  hust- 
ling, fighting  to  get  places  at  the  gladia- 
torial combat.  I  had  a  second  time  to 
give  way.  Now  there  is  no  crowd ;  now 
there  is  silence  and  quiet,  no  counter- 
attraction;  a  chance  has  been  given  to 
me  at  last  to  act  my  part,  and  to  you  to 
honor  the  author  whose  play  I  am  seeking 
to  produce.     For  my  sake  be  silent  and 


listen,  that  he  may  have  the  heart  to 
write  other  plays,  and  that  it  may  pay  me 
to  learn  new  plays  and  produce  them,  at 
my  expense,  for  your  amusement. 

The  speaker  was  the  famous  actor  and 
stage-manager,  L.  Ambivius  Turpio. 

The  prologue  to  the  Poenulus  of  Plau- 
tus  is  exceptionally  good: 

Be  silent  and  hearken  unto  me,  and  sit 
ye  quietly  on  the  benches — such  are  the 
orders  of  General,  General— General  what 
you  do  think?     General  Stagemanager— 
orders  meant  both  for  those  who  came 
hungry  and  for  those  who  breakfasted 
before  they  came.     Those  who  ate  first 
were- by  far  the  wiser;  those  who  came 
hungry   must   fill   themselves    with    the 
plays.'^     If  a  man  has  anything  to  eat,  it's 
the  height  of  folly  to  come  here  on  an 
emptv  stomach,  to  listen  to  us.     Arise, 
Sir  Herald,  and  proclaim   silence.     I've 
been  waiting  to  see  if  you  knew  your  duty. 
Lift  up  your  voice,  exert  it  well :  it  is  your 
voice  whereby  you  get  your  living.     If  you 
don't  shout  out  now  you'll  have  a  chance 
to  die  by  and  by  of  silent  starvation.    Let 
not  the  ushers  move  about  before  my  face 
or   conduct  anyone  to  a  seat   while   an 
actor  is  on  the^  stage.     Those  who  slept 
too  long,  and  so  came  late,  ought  either  to 
stand  up  or  to  shorten  their  sleep.     Let 
not  slaves  block  up  the  way  and  so  cheat 
freemen  out  of  their  places.     Women  that 
have  nursing   babies  should   look  after 
them  at  home,  and  not  bring  them  to  the 
play,  lest  the  nurses  themselves  get  thirsty 
and  the  babies  die  of  hunger,   or  else, 
through  hunger,  bleat  like  kids.     Let  the 
women  look  on  in  silence,  let  them  laugh 
quietly,  let  them  keep  from  droning  away 
in  their  sing-song  voices,  let  them  put  off 
their  conversation  till  they  get  home,  lest 
they  be  a  plague  to  men  here  as  well  as  in 
their  own  homes. 

Since  the  whole  population  was  at  lib- 
erty to  come,  free  of  charge,  the  theaters 
were  constructed  to  accommodate  large 
throngs.  Yet  the  statements  made  in 
ancient  writers  (and  frequently  repeated 

9  Note  the  plural  here. 


in  modern  books)  of  the  vast  numbers  of 
seats  in  ancient  structures,  theatrical, 
amphitheatrical,  circensian,  are  much 
exaggerated.  Pliny  the  Elder  declares 
that  the  Theatrum  Pompeii  seated  40,000 
persons.  This  Ch.  Huelsen,  the  distin- 
guished German  archaeologist,  refuses 
to  believe.  He  calculates  that  this 
theater  could  seat  at  most  17,500,  the 
Theatrum  ^larcelli  9,000  to  10,000^^ 
The  Large  Theater  at  Pompeii  could 
seat  5,000.  Though  these  figures  come 
far  short  of  Pliny's,  they  nevertheless 
prove  the  enormous  size  of  the  ancient 
Roman  theaters. 

That  the  audience  was  anything  but 
quiet  and  orderly  appears  from  the  pro- 
logues to  the  Hecyra  and  the  Poenulus, 
already  translated  in  part  (pages  202-203). 
We  find  similar  appeals  in  the  prologues 
to  many  other  plays.  For  a  much  later 
date  we  have  Horace's  testimony  (page 
145).  The  audience  was  not  slow  to  ex- 
press its  approval  or  disapproval.  Actors 
and  actresses  were  at  times  hissed  off  the 
stage.  ^luch  noise  was  due,  no  doubt,  to 
the  hired  claque;  the  prologue  to  the 
Amphitruo  of  Plautus  gives  ample  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  such  a  claque. 
One  source  of  disorder  remains  to  be 
noted,  the  interchange  of  remarks  be- 
tween actors  and  spectators.  Of  this 
there  is  space  to  mention  but  two  exam- 
ples. In  the  prologue  to  the  Captivi  of 
Plautus,    the    prologist,    after    outlining 

10  The  basis  of  his  calculations  of  the  seating 
capacity  of  the  theaters,  and  of  the  Coliseum  is 
the  number  of  linear  feet  of  seating-space  avail- 
able. If  this  number  could  be  calculated 
exactly  (the  condition  of  the  ruins  unfortunate- 
ly makes  this  impossible),  it  would  be  easy  to 
get  the  total  of  seats  by  allotting  16  inches 
to  each  spectator  (see  above,  page  147).  Any- 
one who  has  ever  been  at  pains  to  check  up 
popular  or  newspaper  conceptions  of  the 
seating-capacity  of  modern  buildings,  ball- 
grounds,  etc.,  will  put  no  faith  in  ancient 
estimates  of  seating  capacity. 


202 


ART  AM)  AHCHAEOIJXIY 


THE  ROMAN    FHEATER 


203 


been  held  that  four  plays  of  Plautiis  re-  temporary  evidence  in  the  seeond  pro- 

(luire  at  hnist  four  actors:  tenphiysre(iuire  lo^iuc  to  Terence's  Hecyra: 

five  act(>r<;   two   recpiire  six  actors.     So  And  now  for  my  sake  <»:ive  ear  to  what  I 

three  ])lav<  of  T(M'ence  reciuire  six  actors,  am  al)out  to  ask.     I  am  hrin<2:ing;  before 

One    h'lst    point    mav    ],e   noted    here.  yc,u  a^ain  the  Hcuyni,  which  1  have  never 

,          ,  .     ,      '.  ,,            ",           ,.          c  _,  been  sutiered  to  act  m  peace  and  (lUiet. 

In  all  kmd>  ot  Roman  dramatic  pertoim-  ^^.^^^^^  ^.^.^^  ^  ^^.^^^^  ^^^  ^^^.^  ^j^.^  ^^j^^^^,^  j  j^.^^^ 

ances,    except    the    mime   and    the    pan-  ^^^^  (.j,.^i^(.(.j\)i.  the  excitement  ai)out  some 

tominie,  all  the  roles  were  taken  by  men.  |)riz(>-fit>;hters,  the  noise  of  parties  fornnng 

The  Romans  themselves  vigorously  assail  forthat show.theconfusionandtheshrieks 


FIG.  21.    THE  CUKKK  THKATEK  OF  liHAUFlELU  f'oEI.EdK.  liEKKSHUM.,  ENCEAM). 


the    immorality    of    the    mime    and    the 
pantomime. 

It  remains  to  consi<ler  the  audience. 
Admission  to  theatrical  performances  was 
free  to  all  classes  of  the  conununity, 
except  at  first  to  slaves  and  for(np;ners. 
Later,  slaves,  too  were  admitted,  and  of 
course  foreigners;  slaves  in  attendance  on 
their  masters  cannot  long  have  been 
excluded.  For  the  presence  of  women  in 
the  theater  as  early  as  the  time  of  Terence 
(that  is,  before  160  B.C.),  we  have  con- 


of  the  womcni  drove  me  off  before  1  had 
half  finished.  1  tried  it  again.  You 
liked  the  first  ])art,  when  suddenly  a  report 
ran  through  the  theater  that  a  gladiatorial 
(exhibition  was  to  be  given  that  day. 
i)\'i  flew  the  spectators,  shouting,  hust- 
ling, figlithig  to  get  places  at  the  gladia- 
torial combat.  I  had  a  second  time  to 
give  way.  Now  there  is  no  crowd;  now 
there  is  silence  and  quiet,  no  counter- 
attraction;  a  chance  has  been  given  to 
me  at  last  to  act  my  i)art,  and  to  you  to 
honor  the  author  whose  play  I  am  seeking 
to  produce.     For  my  sake  be  silent  and 


i 


I 


listen,  that  he  may  have  the  heart  to 
write  other  i:)lays,  and  that  it  may  pay  me 
to  learn  new  plays  and  i)r()duce  them,  at 
mv  expense,  for  your  amusement. 

The  s]X'ak(n-  was  the  famous  actor  and 
stage-manag<M',  L.  Ambivius  Turpio. 

The  i)rologue  to  the  Poenulus  of  Plau- 
tns  is  exce]itif)nally  good: 

He  silent  and  hearken  unto  me,  and  sit 

ye  quietly  on  the  benches — such  are  the 

orders  of '( leneral,  ( U'neral— ( Umeral  what 

vou  do  think'.'     (lencM'al  Stagemanager — 

orders   meant   ))oth  for  those  who  came 

hungry   and   for  those   who   breakfasted 

before  they  came.     Those  who  ate  first 

were*  by  far  the  wiser;  those  who  came 

lumgry   must    fill   themselves    with    the 

plavs.''     If  a  man  hasanything  to  eat,  it's 

the  height  of  folly  to  come  here  on  an 

emi^y  stomach,  to  listtni  to  us.     Arise, 

Sir  Herald,  and  proclaim    silence.     I've 

been  waitingtosee  if  you  knew  your  duty. 

Lift  up  your  voice,  exert  it  well:  it  is  your 

voice  wliereby  you  get  your  living.     If  you 

don't  shout  oiit  now  you'll  have  a  chance 

to  die  by  and  by  of  silent  starvation.    Let 

not  the  ushers  move  about  before  my  face 

or   conduct   anyone  to  a  seat    while   an 

actor  is  on  the  stage.     Those  who  slept 

too  hmg,  and  so  came  late,  ought  either  to 

stand  up  or  to  shorten  their  sleep.     Let 

not  slaves  block  up  the  way  and  so  cheat 

freemen  out  of  their  places.     Women  that 

have   nursing   ])abies   should   look   after 

them  at  home,  and  not  })ring  them  to  the 

plav,  lest  the  nurses  themselves  get  thirsty 

and  the   bal)ies   die  of  hunger,   or  else, 

through  hunger,  bleat  like  kids.     Let  the 

women  look  on  in  silence,  let  them  laugh 

(piietly,  let  them  keep  from  droning  away 

in  their  sing-song  voices,  let  them  put  oft 

their  conversation  till  they  get  hcmie,  lest 

they  be  a  plague  to  men  lu^'c^as  well  as  in 

their  own  homes. 

Since  the  whole  ])0]Milation  was  at  lil)- 
erty  to  come,  free  of  charge,  the  theaters 
were  constructed  to  acconnnodate  large 
throngs.  Yet  the  statements  made  in 
ancient  writers  (and  freciuently  repeated 

9  Note  the  plural  here. 


in  modern  books)  of  the  vast  numbers  of 
seats  in  ancient  structures,  theatrical, 
amphitheatrical,  circensian,  are  much 
exaggerated.  Pliny  the  Elder  declares 
that  the  Theatrimi  Pompeii  seated  40,000 
persons.  This  Ch.  Huelsen,  the  distin- 
guished German  archaeologist,  refuses 
to  believe.  He  calculates  that  this 
theater  could  seat  at  most  17,500,  the 
Theatrum  :^Iarcelli  9,000  to  10,000^^ 
The  Large  Theater  at  Pompeii  could 
seat  5,000.  Though  these  figures  come 
far  short  of  Pliny's,  they  nevertheless 
])rove  the  enormous  size  of  the  ancient 
Roman  theaters. 

That  the  audience  was  anything  but 
(luiet  and  orderly  a])pears  from  the  i^ro- 
logues  to  the  Hecyra  and  the  Poenulus, 
already  translated  in  part  (pages  202-203). 
AVe  find  similar  appeals  in  the  prologues 
to  many  other  plays.  For  a  much  later 
date  we  have  Horace's  testimony  (page 
145).  The  audience  was  not  slow  to  ex- 
l^ress  its  approval  or  disapproval.  Actors 
and  actresses  were  at  times  hissed  off  the 
stage.  Much  noise  was  due,  no  doul)t,  to 
the  hired  claque;  the  ])rologue  to  the 
Amphitruo  of  Plautus  gives  ample  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  such  a  claque. 
One  source  of  disorder  remains  to  l^e 
noted,  the  interchange  of  remarks  be- 
tween actors  and  spectators.  Of  this 
there  is  space  to  mention  but  two  exam- 
ples. In  the  ])rologue  to  the  Captivi  of 
Plautus,    the    prologist,    after    outlining 

10  The  basis  of  his  calcinations  of  the  seating 
capacity  of  the  theaters,  and  of  the  Coliseum  is 
the  number  of  linear  feet  of  seating-space  avail- 
able. If  this  number  could  V:>e  calculated 
exactly  (the  ccmdition  of  the  ruins  unfortunate- 
ly makes  this  imi)ossible),  it  would  be  easy  to 
get  the  total  of  seats  by  allotting  16  inches 
to  each  spectator  (see  above,  page  U7).  Any- 
one who  has  ever  been  at  pains  to  check  up 
popular  or  newspaper  conceptions  of  the 
seating-capacity  of  modern  buildings,  ball- 
grounds,  etc.,  will  put  no  faith  in  ancient 
estimates  of  seating  capacity. 


204 


ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  somewhat  intricate  plot  of  the  play, 
says  to  the  spectators,  ''Plave  I  said 
enough?  Do  you  understand  the  plot?" 
Thev  answer  in  the  affirmative,  all  save 
one,  for  the  prologist  exclaims,  ''By 
Jove,  there's  a  man  in  the  back  who  says 
No.  M}'  good  sir,  come  nearer.  If 
vou  can't  find  room  to  sit  down,  vou  can 


Wliat?  I  know  nothing,  I  see  nothing,  I 
go  blindly,  I  cannot  tell  whither  to  go  or 
where  I  am  or  who  I  am.  I  pray  you, 
spectators  kind,  help  me,  help  me,  and 
show  me  the  man  who  stole  it.  (Follows 
a  voice  from  the  audience:)  What's  that 
you  say,  sir?  I'm  resolved  to  trust  you;  I 
know  by  ?/o?^r  face  that  you  are  an  honest 
man.  What's  that  you  say?  (Then  to 
the  other  spectators.)    What's  the  matter? 


FIG.  22.    SCENE  FROM  THE  ALCESTIS  OF  EURIPIDES,  AS  GIVEN  IN  THE  GREEK  THEATER  OF 

BRADFIELD  COLLEGE,  BERKSHIRE. 


find  room  to  icalk''  (there  is  a  play  on 
words  here:  loalk  is  meant  to  suggest 
"  walk  out  of  the  theater") .  In  the  Aulu- 
laria  of  Plant  us  the  miser,  who  has  just 
lost  the  pot  of  gold  he  had  been  jealously 
guarding,  rushing  on  the  stage  in  wild 
excitement,  cries: 

I'm  dead,  I'm  killed,  I'm  slain!  Whither 
shall    I    run?     Hold!      Hold'      Whom?        Columbia  University. 


What  are  you  laughing  at?  I  know  you: 
I  know  there's  many  a  thief  here,  many 
a  wolf  in  sheep's  clothing.  (Then  to 
the  one  honest  man:)  What,  what?  None 
of  these  spectators  has  it?  You've 
killed  me.  Tell  me,  who  has  it,  who  has 
it?  You  don't  know?  Ah  me,  poor 
luckless  wight,  I'm  slain,  I'm  killed,  I'm 
dead ! 


204 


ART  AM)  ARC  HAKOLOGY 


the  somcwliat  intricate  ]^lot  of  the  ])lay, 
says  to  the  s])eetat(^r.s,  ''Have  I  said 
enoujih?  Do  you  understand  the  i)lot?" 
They  answer  in  the  affirmative,  all  save 
one,  for  the  prolofiist  exclaims.  '^B}^ 
Jov(\  there's  a  man  in  tlie  hack  who  sa3'S 
A'o.  M}'  good  sir.  come  nearer.  If 
vou  can't  find  room  to  sit  down,  you  can 


AVhat?  I  know  nothin*:;.  I  see  nothhiti;.  I 
go  i)Hndly,  I  cannot  tell  whitlier  to  go  or 
where  I  am  or  who  1  am.  I  i)ray  you, 
spectators  khid,  help  me,  iielp  me.  and 
sliow  me  the  man  who  stole  it.  (  FoHows 
a  voice  from  the  audience:)  Wliat's  that 
vou  sav,  sir?  I'm  resolved  to  trust  i/oic  I 
know  by  //o//r  face  tliat  j/ou  are  an  iionest 
man.  Wliat's  that  you  say?  (Then  to 
the  other  spectators.  I    What's  the  matter? 


I 


Ffd.  ■2-2.    SCKAK  FROM  THE  Al/JESTIS  OF  F:L'IHFII)ES.  AS  (IIVEX  IN  THE  GKEEK  THEATEll  OF 

BllADFIELD  COLEECJE.  BEKKSHIHE. 


find  room  to  ?rr///.''  (there  is  a  play  on 
words  here:  icalL-  is  meant  to  suggest 
'Svalk  out  of  the  theater'') .  In  the  Aulu- 
laria  of  Plautus  the  miser,  who  has  just 
lost  the  pot  of  gold  he  had  l)een  jealously 
guarding,  rushing  on  the  stage  in  wild 
excitement,  cries: 

I'm  dead, I'm  killed.  I'm  slain!  Whither 
shall     1     rmi^     HoUl!      HoUl'      Whom".' 


AVhat  are  you  laughhig  at?  I  \u\o\y  ij on: 
I  know  there's  manv  a  thief  here,  manv 
a  wolf  in  sheep's  clot  lung.  (Then  to 
the  one  honest  man:)  What,  what '.^  None 
of  these  spectators  has  it?  You've 
killed  me.  Tell  me,  who  has  it,  who  has 
it?  You  don't  know?  Ah  me,  ]ioor 
luckless  wight,  I'm  slain,  I'm  killed,  I'm 
dead ! 

Coin tn hid   r'///"/V7'.vv7'/. 


